Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers And Towns

Introduction

Following the decline of the Harappan civilisation over a span of 1500 years, significant changes occurred across the Indian subcontinent. This period saw the composition of the Rigveda along the Indus and its tributaries, marking the beginning of a new cultural phase.

Agricultural settlements became prominent in various regions, including North India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka. Simultaneously, pastoral communities were present in the Deccan and further south.

New practices for burying the dead emerged, notably the construction of large stone structures called megaliths in central and south India from the first millennium BCE. These burials often contained a variety of iron tools and weapons.

From around the sixth century BCE, a major transformation took place with the rise of early states, empires, and kingdoms. This political evolution was intertwined with changes in agricultural organisation and the growth of new towns throughout the subcontinent.

Historians utilise diverse sources like inscriptions, texts, coins, and visual materials to understand these developments. This reconstruction process is complex, and no single source provides a complete picture.

Prinsep And Piyadassi

A pivotal moment in understanding early Indian history occurred in the 1830s. James Prinsep, an official of the East India Company, successfully deciphered two ancient scripts: Brahmi and Kharosthi. These scripts were used in the earliest inscriptions and coins found in the subcontinent.

Prinsep discovered that many inscriptions referred to a king by the title Piyadassi, meaning "pleasant to behold." Some inscriptions also mentioned the name Asoka, a famous ruler known from Buddhist texts. This correlation provided a key link between archaeological findings and historical records.

This decipherment significantly advanced the study of early Indian political history. European and Indian scholars used inscriptions and texts in various languages to reconstruct the history and succession of major ruling dynasties. By the early 20th century, a broad outline of this political history was established.

Later, scholars began exploring the relationship between political changes and economic and social developments, recognising that these factors were connected, though often in intricate ways.

Epigraphy is the specialized study of inscriptions.

Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces like stone or metal. They typically record the achievements, actions, or beliefs of those who commissioned them, including royal accomplishments or donations to religious institutions. Inscriptions serve as relatively permanent records, sometimes dated directly or through palaeography (the study of ancient writing styles).

The earliest inscriptions were composed in Prakrit, a language commonly spoken by ordinary people. Names of rulers like Ajatasattu and Asoka are known from Prakrit texts and inscriptions. Later, languages such as Pali, Tamil, and Sanskrit were also used in inscriptions and texts.

The Earliest States

The sixth century BCE is widely considered a major transition period in early Indian history. This era is marked by several key developments:

• The emergence of early states and urban centres (cities).
• Increased use of iron technology.
• Development and use of coinage.
• Growth of new philosophical and religious traditions, including Buddhism and Jainism.

The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Early Buddhist and Jaina texts refer to sixteen significant states known as mahajanapadas. While the lists of these states in different texts can vary, certain names appear frequently, indicating their prominence. These include Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti (Map 1 shows the location of some early states and capitals).

Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings (monarchies). However, some were known as ganas or sanghas, which were oligarchies. In an oligarchy, political power was shared among a group of men, often referred to collectively as rajas. Both Mahavira (founder of Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism) belonged to such ganas. In some instances, like the Vajji sangha, resources such as land might have been controlled collectively by the rajas.

Reconstructing the history of these oligarchic states is challenging due to limited sources, although some endured for nearly a thousand years.

Each mahajanapada typically had a fortified capital city (Fig. 2.2). Maintaining these fortifications, nascent armies, and administrative systems required significant resources.

From the sixth century BCE, Brahmanas began compiling Sanskrit texts called the Dharmasutras. These texts prescribed norms for rulers and other social groups. Ideally, rulers were expected to be Kshatriyas and advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders, and artisans. While it's unclear if resources were also extracted from pastoralists and forest dwellers, raiding neighbouring states was considered a legitimate way to acquire wealth.

Gradually, some states developed standing armies and regular administrative structures (bureaucracies). Others continued to rely on temporary militias, often recruited from the peasantry.

The term Janapada literally means "the land where a jana (people, clan, or tribe) settles down."

First Amongst The Sixteen: Magadha

Between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, the kingdom of Magadha (located in present-day Bihar) rose to become the most powerful mahajanapada. Historians attribute this rise to several factors:

• Agricultural Productivity: Magadha was located in a fertile region where agriculture was exceptionally productive.
• Resource Access: Iron mines in nearby areas (modern Jharkhand) provided resources for making tools and weapons, giving Magadha a military advantage.
• Elephants: Forests in the region supplied elephants, a crucial component of ancient armies.
• Communication & Transport: The Ganga River and its tributaries offered efficient and cost-effective means of communication and transportation.

However, early Buddhist and Jaina texts also credit the ambitious policies of individual rulers and their ministers for Magadha's power. Notable rulers mentioned include Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda, known for their expansionist policies.

Initially, the capital of Magadha was Rajagaha (modern Rajgir), a fortified settlement strategically located among hills. Its name translates to "house of the king." In the fourth century BCE, the capital was moved to Pataliputra (modern Patna), a location that commanded key riverine routes along the Ganga.

Languages And Scripts

Asokan inscriptions were primarily written in the Prakrit language. However, in the northwestern parts of the subcontinent, inscriptions were found in Aramaic and Greek.

Most Prakrit inscriptions were written using the Brahmi script. In the northwest, some Prakrit inscriptions used the Kharosthi script. The Aramaic and Greek scripts were specifically used for inscriptions discovered in Afghanistan.

An Early Empire

The ascendancy of Magadha eventually led to the formation of the Mauryan Empire. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 321 BCE, the empire expanded significantly, reaching as far northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan. His grandson, Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE), is considered one of early India's most renowned rulers, famously conquering Kalinga (coastal Orissa).

Finding Out About The Mauryas

Historians reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire using a variety of sources:

• Archaeological Evidence: This includes material remains, particularly significant stone sculptures (Fig. 2.3).
• Contemporary Accounts: Fragments survive from works like the account of Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya's court.
• The Arthashastra: Parts of this treatise on statecraft are traditionally attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), believed to be Chandragupta's minister.
• Later Texts: The Mauryas are mentioned in Buddhist, Jaina, Puranic, and Sanskrit literary works, though these were composed centuries after the empire.
• Asokan Inscriptions: Inscribed on rocks and polished pillars (Fig. 2.10, 2.11, Map 2), these are considered among the most valuable sources for understanding Asoka's reign and policies (Map 2 shows the distribution of Asokan inscriptions).

Asoka was unique among early rulers in engraving his messages directly onto stone for his subjects and officials. He used these inscriptions to promote his concept of dhamma. Dhamma encompassed principles like respect for elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and ascetics, kind treatment of slaves and servants, and tolerance towards all religions and traditions. Asoka believed adhering to dhamma would ensure well-being in this life and the next.

Administering The Empire

The Mauryan Empire was vast and encompassed diverse geographical and cultural regions, from the rugged terrain of Afghanistan to the coastal plains of Orissa. Asokan inscriptions mention five major political centres:

• The capital: Pataliputra
• Four provincial centres: Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.

Asokan inscriptions found across this vast territory contain remarkably similar messages, suggesting a degree of centralised control. However, historians recognise that a uniform administrative system across such diverse regions was unlikely. Control was probably strongest around the capital and provincial centres.

The provincial centres were chosen strategically: Taxila and Ujjayini were located on important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (meaning "golden mountain") may have been significant for accessing the gold resources of Karnataka.

What The King’S Officials Did

Administration required efficient management of resources and activities. Megasthenes' account describes specific duties of Mauryan officials (Source 1):

• Supervising rivers and measuring land (similar to practices in Egypt).
• Inspecting irrigation sluices to ensure equitable water distribution from canals.
• Managing huntsmen, with authority to reward or punish them.
• Collecting taxes.
• Overseeing various occupations related to land, including woodcutters, carpenters, blacksmiths, and miners.

This indicates a detailed administrative structure aimed at managing key resources, infrastructure, and economic activities within the empire.

Answer:

Effective communication and movement along land and river routes were essential for maintaining the empire's unity. Travel between the capital and provinces could take weeks or months, requiring arrangements for provisions and security. The army was crucial for protection.

According to Megasthenes, the Mauryan army was coordinated by a committee with six subcommittees responsible for the navy, transport and provisions, foot-soldiers, horses, chariots, and elephants. The transport and provisions subcommittee had diverse tasks, including arranging carts, supplying food and fodder, and recruiting personnel to support soldiers.

Asoka also sought to unify the empire through the propagation of dhamma. He appointed special officers called dhamma mahamatta to spread his message of moral and social conduct.

The Arthashastra provides detailed instructions on various administrative matters, including obtaining elephants for the army (Source 2).

Answer:

How Important Was The Empire?

The emergence of the Mauryan Empire was seen as a significant event by 19th and early 20th-century historians, particularly in the context of British colonial rule in India. The idea of an ancient Indian empire was both inspiring and validating for early nationalist historians. Archaeological finds like the impressive stone sculptures associated with the Mauryas were viewed as examples of grand imperial art. Asoka's inscriptions, with their emphasis on dhamma, were seen as evidence of a powerful yet compassionate ruler, contrasting with later rulers who used more boastful titles, making him an inspirational figure for the nationalist movement.

However, contemporary historians question the overall importance and impact of the Mauryan Empire. It lasted for only about 150 years, a relatively short period in the long history of the subcontinent. Furthermore, the empire did not cover the entire geographical area of India (refer to Map 2). Even within its boundaries, the level of control likely varied, being stronger near the administrative centres.

By the second century BCE, relatively soon after the Mauryan decline, new independent chiefdoms and kingdoms began to emerge in various parts of the subcontinent, indicating that the imperial structure was not permanent or universally dominant.

New Notions Of Kingship

After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, several new kingdoms and chiefdoms arose. These new powers developed their own ideas and symbols of authority and kingship.

Chiefs And Kings In The South

In the Deccan and the southern parts of the subcontinent, new states like the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the ancient Tamil country) became stable and prosperous. We learn about these states from various sources, including early Tamil Sangam texts (see also Chapter 3), which contain poems describing the activities of chiefs, including how they acquired and distributed resources (Source 3 gives an example related to a Pandya chief).

Answer:

Many rulers, including the Satavahanas (who controlled parts of western and central India) and the Shakas (Central Asian people who established kingdoms in the northwest and west), relied on revenues generated from long-distance trade. The social origins of these rulers were often not well-documented, but they sought to establish social legitimacy once they gained power.

Chiefs And Chiefdoms

A chief is a powerful individual whose position may or may not be hereditary. Their authority is often based on support from their relatives or kinfolk. The functions of a chief typically include leading in warfare, arbitrating disputes, and performing specific rituals. Unlike kings who collect regular taxes, a chief usually receives gifts from his followers, which he then distributes among his supporters. Chiefdoms generally do not maintain standing armies or a formal bureaucracy.

Divine Kings

One method rulers used to enhance their status and legitimacy was by associating themselves with deities. A notable example is the Kushanas (c. 1st century BCE - 1st century CE), who ruled a large kingdom from Central Asia to northwest India.

Kushana history is reconstructed from inscriptions and texts. Their coins and sculptures particularly highlight their concept of kingship. Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found in shrines, notably at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and in Afghanistan (Fig. 2.5). Some historians interpret these as indicating the Kushanas saw themselves as godlike.

Many Kushana rulers adopted the title devaputra, meaning "son of god," possibly influenced by Chinese rulers who used the title "Son of Heaven." (Fig. 2.4 shows a Kushana coin depicting King Kanishka and a deity).

By the 4th century CE, larger states like the Gupta Empire emerged. These kingdoms often relied on samantas, powerful men who controlled local resources and land. Samantas paid homage and provided military support to the king. The balance of power could shift; strong samantas might become kings, while weak kings could be reduced to subordinate positions.

Gupta history is primarily reconstructed from literature, coins, and inscriptions, including prashastis (eulogies). Prashastis are poems composed by court poets in praise of kings and patrons. While they provide some factual information, they are primarily literary works aimed at glorifying the ruler, not objective historical accounts. The Prayaga Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription), composed by Harishena in praise of Samudragupta (a powerful Gupta ruler), is a famous example (Source 4).

Answer:

The Sudarshana (Beautiful) Lake In Gujarat

An inscription from around the 2nd century CE found at Girnar (Gujarat) provides information about the Sudarshana Lake, an artificial reservoir. Composed in Sanskrit, this inscription records the achievements of the Shaka ruler Rudradaman.

The inscription states that the lake, including its embankments and water channels, was originally built by a local governor during the reign of the Mauryas. However, a severe storm damaged the embankments, causing water to flow out.

Rudradaman, who ruled the area at that time, claimed to have repaired the lake using his own funds, without imposing any additional taxes on his subjects (Source 5).

Answer:

A later inscription on the same rock from the 5th century mentions that the lake was repaired again by a Gupta ruler. This highlights the importance of such irrigation works and their maintenance by successive powers.

A Changing Countryside

Understanding the lives and perspectives of ordinary people in the countryside during this period is challenging, as they rarely left behind written records. However, historians glean insights from sources like the Jataka and Panchatantra stories, which likely originated as popular oral tales before being written down (the Jatakas were compiled in Pali around the mid-1st millennium CE).

Popular Perceptions Of Kings

The Gandatindu Jataka story provides a glimpse into the relationship between kings and their subjects. It recounts the hardships faced by villagers (including the elderly, cultivators, herders) under a cruel king. When the king investigated disguised, his subjects unanimously cursed him, complaining of insecurity from robbers and oppressive tax collection. Their desperation was so extreme that they abandoned their village and fled to the forest.

This narrative suggests that the relationship between rulers and the rural population could be tense. Kings frequently sought to increase state wealth by demanding high taxes, which peasants often found burdensome. Fleeing to the forest was a form of resistance or escape.

To meet the state's growing demand for resources, new strategies were adopted to boost agricultural production.

Strategies For Increasing Production

Several methods were employed to enhance agricultural output:

• Shift to Plough Agriculture: In fertile alluvial river valleys like the Ganga and Kaveri, iron-tipped ploughshares became common from around the sixth century BCE. This tool was effective for tilling heavy, fertile soil in areas with good rainfall.
• Transplantation: In parts of the Ganga valley where water was abundant, paddy cultivation increased dramatically with the introduction of transplantation. This technique, involving growing saplings first and then planting them in waterlogged fields, improved survival rates and yields but required intensive labour.
• Irrigation: The use of wells, tanks, and occasionally canals for irrigation became more widespread. The construction of irrigation works was organised by communities and powerful individuals, including kings. Rulers often recorded their involvement in building or repairing irrigation facilities in inscriptions, like the case of the Sudarshana Lake (Source 5).

While the iron ploughshare boosted productivity in some regions, its adoption varied. Cultivators in semi-arid areas like parts of Punjab and Rajasthan did not use it extensively until much later. In hilly regions, hoe agriculture, better suited to the terrain, remained prevalent.

Differences In Rural Society

The adoption of new agricultural technologies and strategies, while increasing overall production, often led to uneven distribution of benefits and a growing differentiation within rural society. Buddhist texts, for example, mention different categories of people involved in agriculture:

• Landless agricultural labourers.
• Small peasants.
• Large landholders.

The term gahapati was frequently used in Pali texts to refer to small peasants and large landholders. Large landowners and often hereditary village headmen emerged as powerful figures who could exercise control over other cultivators.

Early Tamil literature (Sangam texts) also describes different groups in villages, including large landowners (vellalar), ploughmen (uzhavar), and slaves (adimai). These distinctions were likely based on unequal access to essential resources like land, labour, and new technologies. As a result, questions regarding the ownership and control of land became increasingly important and were addressed in legal texts like the Manusmrti (Source 6).

Answer:

Gahapati

A gahapati was essentially the head of a household, typically the owner or master. This individual held authority over the household members, including women, children, slaves, and workers who shared the residence. The gahapati also owned the household's resources, such as land, animals, and other property. In urban contexts, the term could also be used to denote the status of wealthy men among the urban elite, such as affluent merchants.

Land Grants And New Rural Elites

Starting in the early centuries CE, grants of land became more common. These grants were often documented in inscriptions, sometimes on stone but frequently on copper plates (Fig. 2.13), serving as a legal record for the recipient. The surviving records primarily detail grants made to religious institutions (like monasteries) or to Brahmanas. Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit, though from the 7th century CE onwards, parts were often in local languages like Tamil or Telugu (Source 8 provides an example).

A famous example is an inscription involving Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of the powerful Gupta ruler Chandragupta II. She was married into the Vakataka ruling family in the Deccan. According to traditional Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to independently own land. However, this inscription shows Prabhavati granting land, suggesting that either royal women were exceptions to this rule or that these legal provisions were not always strictly applied.

The inscription also sheds light on the rural population of the granted village, which included Brahmanas and peasants. These inhabitants were expected to provide various produce and services to the new landholder. They were also required to obey the new lord of the village and pay him dues, indicating a transfer of authority and revenue collection rights from the state to the donee.

Land grants varied in size (from small plots to large areas of uncultivated land) and the rights transferred to the recipients (donees). The reasons and impacts of these grants are debated by historians. Some see them as a state strategy to bring new areas under cultivation. Others argue they reflect weakening state power, where kings granted land to create allies (samantas) as their direct control diminished, or as a way to project an image of power when their actual control was less secure.

Source 7 gives a rare description of life in a small village in the Vindhyas from the Harshacharita, noting spade cultivation in sparsely ploughed land and collection of forest produce.

Answer:

These grants reveal much about the relationship between agricultural communities and the state or the new landholding elites. However, they provide less information about groups who were more mobile or lived outside settled agricultural villages, such as pastoralists, hunter-gatherers, fisherfolk, mobile artisans, and shifting cultivators, as these groups rarely kept detailed records.

An Agrahara

An agrahara was a type of land grant specifically made to a Brahmana. These grants often came with certain exemptions, such as freedom from paying land revenue and other dues to the king. In some cases, the Brahmana recipient was also given the right to collect these dues from the local people living on the granted land. This system could create a new layer of authority between the state and the peasants.

Answer:

Towns And Trade

New urban centres emerged across the subcontinent from around the sixth century BCE. Many of these cities served as the capitals of the mahajanapadas. These urban centres were strategically located along crucial communication routes.

New Cities

Cities developed along different types of routes:

• Some, like Pataliputra, were situated on riverine routes, utilising rivers for transport.
• Others, such as Ujjayini, were located along important overland trade routes.
• Coastal cities, like Puhar, served as ports and starting points for sea voyages.

Many cities, including Mathura, grew into dynamic hubs combining commercial, cultural, and political activities.

The History Of Pataliputra

Each city had its own development trajectory. Pataliputra, for instance, began as a small village called Pataligrama. In the 5th century BCE, the rulers of Magadha decided to move their capital from Rajagaha to this settlement, renaming it. By the 4th century BCE, it had become the capital of the vast Mauryan Empire and one of Asia's largest cities. However, its importance seems to have waned later. When the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited in the 7th century CE, he found the city in ruins with a significantly reduced population.

Urban Populations: Elites And Craftspersons

Fortified cities were home to kings and ruling elites. While extensive excavations are difficult in many historical cities that are still inhabited, archaeological finds provide insights into urban life. Recovered artefacts include fine pottery such as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), known for its glossy finish and likely used by wealthy residents.

Ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, and figurines made from a variety of materials like gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta have also been found.

Short votive inscriptions, dating from the 2nd century BCE onwards, are found in many cities. These inscriptions record gifts, often to religious institutions, and frequently mention the donor's name and occupation. This provides valuable information about the diversity of occupations among urban inhabitants:

• Washing folk
• Weavers
• Scribes
• Carpenters
• Potters
• Goldsmiths (Fig. 2.6 shows an inscription mentioning a goldsmith's wife)
• Blacksmiths
• Officials
• Religious teachers
• Merchants
• Kings

Organisations of craft producers and merchants, known as guilds or shrenis, are also mentioned. These guilds likely managed the procurement of raw materials, regulated production quality, and marketed the finished goods. The increasing demand from urban elites probably led craftspersons to use a range of iron tools to boost production.

Trade In The Subcontinent And Beyond

From the sixth century BCE, a network of land and river routes crisscrossed the Indian subcontinent and extended far beyond. Overland routes connected to Central Asia and beyond, while sea routes originated from coastal ports. These maritime links extended across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China (Map 3 shows some important kingdoms and towns along trade routes).

Rulers often sought to control these trade routes, potentially offering protection to traders in exchange for payment. Those who travelled these routes included pedestrian peddlers, merchants with animal caravans, and seafarers undertaking risky but potentially lucrative voyages.

Successful merchants could accumulate significant wealth and were referred to by different terms: masattuvan in Tamil, and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit.

A wide variety of goods were traded, including salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, and medicinal plants. Some goods were in high demand internationally, such as spices (especially pepper), textiles, and medicinal plants, which were exported across the Arabian Sea to the Roman Empire (Source 9 provides an account of goods traded from the Malabar coast).

Answer:

“Periplus” Is A Greek Word

The term "Periplus" comes from Greek and means "sailing around." The "Erythraean Sea" was the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea. The text known as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is a nautical guide written by an anonymous Greek sailor around the 1st century CE, describing trade routes, ports, and goods in the Red Sea, East Africa, Arabia, and India.

Coins And Kings

The use of coinage greatly facilitated trade and exchange. The earliest known coins are silver and copper punch-marked coins (Fig. 2.7), dating from around the 6th century BCE. These coins, found at various sites, were named for the symbols punched or stamped onto their metal surface.

Numismatists (scholars who study coins) analyse these coins to reconstruct trade networks. Attempts have been made to link symbols on punch-marked coins to specific dynasties, suggesting that kings issued some of them. However, it's also believed that merchants, bankers, and townspeople may have issued some coins.

The first coins to feature the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control in the northwest around the 2nd century BCE (Fig. 2.12 shows a coin of Indo-Greek king Menander).

The Kushanas issued the largest quantities of gold coins, beginning around the 1st century CE. These coins were similar in weight to those used by contemporary Roman emperors and Parthian rulers, and have been found in north India and Central Asia. The widespread use of gold coins suggests extensive and valuable trade transactions.

Finds of hoards of Roman coins in south India further indicate strong trade connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire, even though south India was not politically part of the Roman Empire. This shows that trade networks often operated independently of political boundaries.

Coins were also issued by tribal republics, like the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana (c. 1st century CE) (Fig. 2.8). Large numbers of copper coins unearthed from Yaudheya territory point to their involvement in economic exchanges.

The Gupta rulers issued some of the most impressive gold coins (Fig. 2.9), known for their purity in the early issues. These coins facilitated long-distance trade, from which the kings also benefited.

From around the 6th century CE, the discovery of gold coins becomes less frequent. Historians debate the reason for this decline. Some suggest it indicates an economic crisis, possibly linked to the decline of long-distance trade with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Others argue that new trade networks and towns were emerging, and fewer coins are found because they were kept in circulation rather than being hoarded.

Back To Basics How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

Understanding historical inscriptions is fundamental to reconstructing the past. Historians employ specific methods to decipher the scripts and interpret the content of these ancient writings.

Deciphering Brahmi

Most scripts used for modern Indian languages originate from Brahmi, the script predominantly used in Asokan inscriptions. European scholars, with the help of Indian pandits, worked backwards from later manuscripts (like those in Bengali and Devanagari) from the late 18th century onwards. They compared the letters in these later scripts with older examples.

Initially, early inscriptions were often assumed to be in Sanskrit, although the earliest ones were actually in Prakrit. Through dedicated and painstaking efforts over decades by multiple epigraphists, James Prinsep finally succeeded in deciphering Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

How Kharosthi Was Read

The decipherment of Kharosthi, the script used in inscriptions in the northwest, followed a different path. Finds of coins from Indo-Greek kings who ruled this region (c. 2nd-1st centuries BCE) were instrumental. These coins bore the names of the rulers written in both Greek and Kharosthi scripts.

European scholars who were able to read Greek compared the letters in both scripts. For example, they could identify the symbol for sounds by finding them in the names of rulers, such as the 'a' sound in the name Apollodotus written in both scripts. Once Prinsep identified the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, it became possible to read longer inscriptions written in this script.

Historical Evidence From Inscriptions

Examining Asokan inscriptions helps illustrate the work of epigraphists and historians. For example, many Asokan inscriptions do not explicitly mention the name Asoka. Instead, they use titles adopted by him, such as Devanampiya ("beloved of the gods") and Piyadassi ("pleasant to behold") (Source 10).

Answer:

Asoka's name is found in some other inscriptions that also carry these titles. By comparing the content, style, language, and palaeography across all these inscriptions, epigraphists concluded that they were all issued by the same ruler, Asoka.

Historians must critically evaluate statements made in inscriptions. For example, Asoka's claim that previous rulers had no system for receiving reports needs assessment against other historical evidence. Historians constantly judge whether such claims are factual, plausible, or exaggerated.

When reading translated inscriptions, words in brackets are often additions by epigraphists to clarify meaning that is implicit or missing. This requires careful judgement to avoid altering the original intent.

Other challenges include determining how widely inscriptions placed on rocks or pillars were read and understood by a largely illiterate population, or if people from different regions speaking varied Prakrit dialects could comprehend the script from Pataliputra. It is also difficult to ascertain if the king's orders were universally followed.

Source 11, often interpreted as reflecting Asoka's remorse after the Kalinga War, highlights further complexities. The inscription describing his anguish (Kalinga Edict) is found elsewhere but is notably missing from the region of Kalinga itself (present-day Orissa) that was conquered. This raises questions about why the ruler might have chosen not to place this specific message in the affected region, potentially indicating that the suffering there was too recent or sensitive to be addressed directly by the ruler's expression of remorse.

Answer:

The Limitations Of Inscriptional Evidence

While inscriptions are invaluable sources, epigraphy alone cannot provide a complete picture of the past. There are inherent limitations to this type of evidence:

• Technical Issues: Inscriptions can be faintly engraved, damaged, or have missing letters, making decipherment and reconstruction uncertain.
• Language and Meaning: The precise meaning of ancient words, which might be specific to a particular time or place, can be difficult to determine with certainty. Epigraphists constantly debate alternative interpretations.
• Survival Bias: Not all inscriptions that were created have survived the effects of time and environment. What remains is likely only a fraction of the original number. Furthermore, not all discovered inscriptions have been fully deciphered, published, or translated.
• Limited Scope: Inscriptions often focus on official matters, grand events (like conquests or royal donations), or the perspectives of the person commissioning them. They rarely mention routine daily life, agricultural practices, or the experiences and feelings of ordinary people.
• Bias: The content almost always reflects the perspective and agenda of the ruler or donor, rather than providing a neutral account.

Therefore, to get a more nuanced understanding of the past, information from inscriptions must be compared and combined with evidence from other sources (texts, archaeology, coins). Historians continuously question existing evidence and interpretations, and the focus of historical research evolves. Earlier scholarship prioritised the histories of kings and dynasties. From the mid-20th century, there has been increasing interest in economic and social changes and the experiences of different social groups. More recent work focuses on marginalised groups, prompting new analyses of old sources and the development of new research methods.