Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs And Buildings

Introduction

This chapter explores a thousand-year period (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE) marked by significant cultural developments in the Indian subcontinent. It delves into the ideas of various philosophers and how their thoughts shaped the world. Their philosophies were recorded in oral and written texts, and expressed through architecture and sculpture, demonstrating their lasting impact.

While focusing primarily on Buddhism, it is important to recognise that this tradition did not develop in isolation. It was part of a vibrant intellectual landscape where different philosophical and religious traditions engaged in ongoing debates and dialogues.

Historians rely on various sources to reconstruct this era of evolving ideas and beliefs. These include texts from Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical traditions, as well as a wealth of archaeological evidence, particularly well-preserved monuments and inscriptions. The stupa at Sanchi is a key example of such material remains and serves as a major focus for understanding these developments.

A Glimpse Of Sanchi

In the nineteenth century, European scholars showed great interest in the ancient site of Sanchi, near Bhopal. Shahjehan Begum, the Nawab of Bhopal, noted the beautiful ancient buildings, stone sculptures, and gateways at Sanchi in her history of Bhopal. She observed the keen interest of European gentlemen, including Major Alexander Cunningham, who meticulously studied the ruins, made drawings, deciphered inscriptions, and conducted excavations. (Fig 4.2 shows Shahjehan Begum, and Fig 4.3 shows the Great Stupa at Sanchi as it stands today).

Both the French and the English initially wanted to acquire the best-preserved eastern gateway of the Sanchi stupa to display in European museums. Fortunately, the rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, successfully prevented this by agreeing to provide carefully prepared plaster-cast copies instead. The original gateway remained at Sanchi, within the Bhopal state.

The Begums of Bhopal also played a crucial role in the preservation of Sanchi by providing funds for maintaining the ancient site, establishing a museum, and funding John Marshall's guesthouse and the publication of his important volumes on Sanchi. Marshall dedicated these volumes to Sultan Jehan Begum, acknowledging her contribution.

The survival of the Sanchi stupa complex is attributed not only to these conscious preservation efforts but also to good fortune, as it escaped significant damage from railway contractors, builders, and treasure hunters seeking artefacts for European museums.

The discovery and preservation of Sanchi have been pivotal in changing our understanding of early Buddhism. Today, it stands as a testament to successful archaeological restoration and preservation by the Archaeological Survey of India.

The Background: Sacrifices And Debates

The mid-first millennium BCE is recognised globally as a period of significant intellectual and cultural ferment. Across the world, thinkers like Zarathustra (Iran), Kong Zi (China), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle (Greece), and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha (India) emerged. These philosophers grappled with fundamental questions about existence, reality, and the relationship between humanity and the cosmos.

This era coincided with major social and economic changes in the Ganga valley (Chapters 2 and 3), including the development of new kingdoms and cities. The emerging philosophical ideas were, in part, attempts to understand and respond to these societal transformations.

The Sacrificial Tradition

Prior to these new philosophical movements, various traditions of thought and practice existed. One prominent tradition was the early Vedic tradition, primarily known from the Rigveda (compiled c. 1500-1000 BCE). The Rigveda contains hymns dedicated to deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma. These hymns were chanted during sacrificial rituals, through which people sought blessings for well-being, including cattle, sons, health, and long life (Source 1).

Answer:

Initially, sacrifices were communal events. Later (c. 1000-500 BCE), some rituals became household-centric, performed by the head of the family. More elaborate sacrifices like the rajasuya and ashvamedha were conducted by powerful chiefs and kings, requiring the expertise of Brahmana priests.

New Questions

From around the sixth century BCE, texts like the Upanishads began exploring deeper philosophical questions (Source 2). People became increasingly curious about:

• The meaning and purpose of life.
• The concept of life after death.
• The idea of rebirth and whether it was influenced by past actions (karma).

Debates arose regarding the nature of ultimate reality, with some traditions within the Vedic framework seeking to understand a single ultimate truth, while others outside this tradition questioned its very existence. People also began questioning the meaning and effectiveness of the traditional sacrificial practices.

Answer:

Debates And Discussions

Buddhist texts provide accounts of the vibrant intellectual environment of the time, mentioning numerous sects and schools of thought (as many as 64). Teachers from different traditions actively travelled and engaged in debates to promote their philosophies and attract followers. These discussions often took place in venues called kutagarashala (huts with pointed roofs) or in temporary shelters in groves used by mendicants.

Success in convincing rivals meant gaining their followers, leading to fluctuations in the support base of different sects.

Many of these new teachers, including Mahavira and the Buddha, challenged the authority of the Vedas. A key emphasis in their teachings was individual agency – the belief that men and women could, through their own efforts, achieve liberation from worldly suffering. This stood in stark contrast to the prevailing Brahmanical view that an individual's life and destiny were largely determined by their birth into a specific caste or gender.

How Buddhist Texts Were Prepared And Preserved

Like other teachers of the time, the Buddha taught orally through discourses and debates. His followers, both men and women, attended these sessions and discussed his teachings. Nothing was written down during his lifetime.

After the Buddha's death (c. 5th-4th century BCE), his disciples compiled his teachings at a council of senior monks held at Vesali (Vaishali). These compilations became known as the Tipitaka (literally, "Three Baskets"), representing different categories of texts.

The Tipitaka consists of:

• Vinaya Pitaka: Contains rules and regulations for the monastic order (sangha).
• Sutta Pitaka: Includes the Buddha's main teachings and discourses.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Deals with philosophical matters.

Initially transmitted orally, these texts were later written down and classified by length and subject. Buddhist scholars later wrote commentaries on these core texts. As Buddhism spread, other texts were composed, such as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa in Sri Lanka, which included regional histories and biographies of the Buddha. Some of the oldest texts are in Pali, while later ones are in Sanskrit (Fig. 4.4 shows an ancient Buddhist manuscript).

The dissemination of Buddhist texts was aided by pilgrims like Fa Xian and Xuan Zang, who travelled from China to India to collect texts and translated them upon returning home. Indian Buddhist teachers also traveled widely, carrying texts to spread the Buddha's message. These texts were preserved in manuscripts in monasteries across Asia for centuries, forming the basis for modern translations.

Fatalists And Materialists?

Buddhist texts, such as the Sutta Pitaka, also describe the views of other contemporary philosophical traditions, sometimes summarising their core beliefs. Source 3 provides accounts of the teachings of Makkhali Gosala and Ajita Kesakambalin.

Answer:

Makkhali Gosala, belonging to the Ajivika tradition, is presented as arguing that individual actions (virtue, penance) have no effect on karma or the cycle of transmigration; pleasure and pain are predetermined. This aligns with the description of Ajivikas as fatalists, believing everything is fixed. Ajita Kesakambalin, of the Lokayata tradition, is depicted as rejecting concepts like alms, sacrifice, this world, or the next. He believed humans are made of elements that dissipate upon death, denying survival and viewing ideas like gifts as foolish. This aligns with the description of Lokayatas as materialists, focusing solely on the physical realm.

The primary challenge in reconstructing the histories of these and other traditions whose original texts are lost is that our knowledge comes primarily from the works of rival traditions (like Buddhism, Jainism, Brahmanism). These accounts may be incomplete, biased, or even misrepresent the original ideas, making it difficult to gain a full and accurate understanding.

Beyond Worldly Pleasures The Message Of Mahavira

Jainism is another ancient religious tradition with roots predating the sixth century BCE. According to Jaina tradition, Vardhamana, known as Mahavira ("the Great Hero"), who lived in the sixth century BCE, was the 24th and last of the tirthankaras. Tirthankaras are spiritual teachers who guide individuals across the "river of existence" (samsara) to liberation.

The core philosophical tenet of Jainism is that the entire universe, including apparently inanimate objects like stones and water, is imbued with life (jiva). Consequently, a central principle is ahimsa (non-injury) to all living beings – humans, animals, plants, and insects. The emphasis on ahimsa has had a lasting influence on Indian thought.

According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is driven by karma, accumulated through actions. To break free from this cycle and attain liberation, one must engage in asceticism and penance. Renouncing the world is considered necessary for salvation, making monastic life a crucial path.

Jaina monks and nuns adhere to five main vows:

1. Abstain from killing.
2. Abstain from stealing.
3. Abstain from lying.
4. Observe celibacy.
5. Abstain from possessing property.

Teachings of Mahavira, like those of the Buddha, were compiled by disciples after his death. These often took the form of stories, designed to appeal to ordinary people and convey philosophical ideas. Source 4 gives an example from the Uttaradhyayana Sutta, illustrating the Jaina emphasis on renunciation over worldly wealth.

Answer:

Ahimsa, the principle of non-violence, is central to Jainism and has wide-ranging relevance in the 21st century. It promotes compassion, environmental consciousness (respect for all life forms), ethical consumption, and peaceful conflict resolution. It challenges violence at all levels, from interpersonal to global, and encourages mindful living that minimises harm to others and the planet.

The Spread Of Jainism

Jainism gradually spread throughout India. Jaina scholars contributed significantly to literature, producing texts in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil. Manuscripts were carefully preserved in temple libraries for centuries (Fig. 4.6 shows a Jaina manuscript page).

Early stone sculptures associated with religious traditions often depict Jaina tirthankaras and have been found at various sites across the subcontinent (Fig. 4.5 shows a tirthankara image).

The Buddha And The Quest For Enlightenment

Gautama Buddha, born as Siddhartha, was another highly influential teacher. His message eventually spread across the subcontinent and internationally, reaching Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Our understanding of the Buddha's life and teachings comes from Buddhist texts, carefully compiled, edited, and translated by scholars. Hagiographies, biographies of saints or religious leaders often written centuries later to preserve memories and praise achievements, are also used by historians, though their literal accuracy needs careful consideration.

According to tradition, Siddhartha was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. Raised in luxury within the palace, he was initially shielded from suffering. A pivotal moment came when he ventured outside the palace and encountered the realities of old age, sickness, and death, as well as a peaceful mendicant. These 'Four Sights' deeply disturbed him and led him to recognise the inevitable nature of suffering and decay.

Inspired by the mendicant's apparent tranquility, Siddhartha decided to seek his own truth. He left the palace, renouncing his worldly life. He experimented with various paths, including extreme asceticism, which proved fruitless. Abandoning these extremes, he meditated intensely and finally attained enlightenment, becoming known as the Buddha ("the Enlightened One"). For the remainder of his life, he taught his path to righteous living, known as dhamma.

The Teachings Of The Buddha

The core teachings of the Buddha are primarily reconstructed from the stories contained in the Sutta Pitaka. While some accounts mention his miraculous abilities, others portray him as using reason and persuasion to convey his message. For example, instead of miraculously restoring a dead child to life, he used the situation to gently teach the grieving mother about the universality and inevitability of death.

The Buddha's teachings were delivered in the language spoken by ordinary people, ensuring accessibility and understanding.

Key aspects of Buddhist philosophy include:

• The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.
• It is soulless (anatta), lacking any permanent or eternal self or substance.
• Sorrow (dukkha) is an intrinsic part of human existence within this transient world.

The path to overcoming suffering is one of moderation, avoiding extremes of severe penance and excessive self-indulgence. In early Buddhism, the question of whether a god existed was considered irrelevant to the path to liberation.

The Buddha viewed the social world as a human construct, not a divine creation. He advised rulers and householders (gahapatis) to act ethically and humanely (Source 5). He stressed individual effort and righteous conduct (karma) as the means to escape the cycle of rebirth and attain nibbana (Pali for nirvana), the extinguishing of the ego and desire, thereby ending suffering. His final words reportedly encouraged his followers to rely on themselves for liberation.

Answer:

Followers Of The Buddha

As the Buddha's teachings gained traction, a community of disciples formed. He established the sangha, an organised order of monks who committed to teaching dhamma. These monks (bhikkhus) lived a simple, ascetic life, owning minimal possessions and subsisting on alms received daily from lay followers. As they depended on alms, they were called bhikkhus (Pali for Sanskrit bhikshu, beggar).

Initially, the sangha was exclusively for men. However, women were later admitted, reportedly after the intervention of the Buddha's devoted disciple, Ananda. The Buddha's foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained, becoming a bhikkhuni (Pali for Sanskrit bhikkhuni, female mendicant). Many women who joined the sangha distinguished themselves as teachers of dhamma and achieved liberation, earning the title of theris (respected women).

The sangha attracted followers from a wide spectrum of social backgrounds, including kings, wealthy merchants, householders, labourers, slaves, and craftspeople. Within the sangha, social identities based on birth or status were shed, and all members were considered equal.

The internal governance of the sangha mirrored the traditions of ganas and sanghas (republics), where decisions were made through discussion and consensus. If consensus could not be reached, matters were resolved through voting.

Buddhism's rapid growth during and after the Buddha's lifetime is attributed to its appeal to those dissatisfied with existing social and religious norms and seeking meaning amidst societal change. The emphasis on ethical conduct and values over birth-based hierarchy, and the promotion of metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion), particularly towards the vulnerable, drew many to the Buddha's message.

The Therigatha

The Therigatha is a unique Buddhist text found within the Sutta Pitaka. It is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis, offering insights into their social realities and spiritual journeys. Source 6 contains verses attributed to Punna, a slave woman (dasi), who became a bhikkhuni, reflecting her experiences and challenging traditional Brahmanical practices.

Answer:

A dasi like Punna might have wanted to join the sangha for several reasons. Her life as a slave woman was marked by hardship, fear (of punishment and abusive mistresses), and low social status (Fig. 4.8 shows a depiction of a woman water-carrier). The sangha offered an alternative – a community where social hierarchies were dissolved, all members were considered equal, and the focus was on individual spiritual liberation regardless of background. It provided a path to escape from the suffering inherent in her social condition and pursue a life of dignity, learning, and spiritual growth, which was likely unavailable to her in her former life.

Rules For Monks And Nuns

The Vinaya Pitaka outlines specific rules and regulations for the conduct of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) within the sangha. These rules were designed to promote an ascetic lifestyle, prevent attachment to material possessions, maintain discipline, and ensure harmonious community living (Source 7 provides examples).

Answer:

Stupas

The emergence of Buddhist ideas and practices was part of a broader dialogue with various traditions. Some interactions are evident in the development of sacred places. Since ancient times, certain locations, like those with unique natural features (trees, rocks) or striking beauty, were considered sacred and sometimes had small shrines (chaityas) associated with them.

Buddhist literature identifies several sites as sacred due to their connection with the Buddha's life: Lumbini (birthplace), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon), and Kusinagara (attained nibbana). These places gradually became centres of veneration. Asoka reportedly erected a pillar at Lumbini to commemorate his visit there about 200 years after the Buddha's time.

The term Chaitya may also derive from 'chita' (funeral pyre), extending its meaning to a funerary mound.

Why Were Stupas Built?

Other places gained sanctity because they housed relics of the Buddha, such as bodily remains or objects he used. Mounds built over these relics are known as stupas. While the tradition of building mounds might predate Buddhism, stupas became strongly associated with the tradition. Because they contained sacred relics, the entire stupa came to be revered as a symbol of the Buddha and his teachings.

According to the Ashokavadana, a Buddhist text, Emperor Asoka played a key role by distributing portions of the Buddha's relics to major towns across his empire and ordering the construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, notable stupas had been built at sites like Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath (Map 1 shows major Buddhist sites).

The purpose of erecting stupas is also described in Buddhist texts. Source 8 contains a passage from the Mahaparinibbana Sutta where the Buddha advises Ananda on how his remains should be honoured.

Answer:

How Were Stupas Built?

The construction and decoration of stupas involved contributions from various groups. Inscriptions on the railings and pillars record donations made by:

• Kings: Rulers like the Satavahanas provided patronage.
• Guilds: Organisations of craftspeople, such as ivory workers at Sanchi, funded parts of the gateways.
• Individuals: Hundreds of ordinary men and women made donations, often mentioning their names, places of origin, occupations, and relatives (Fig. 4.9 shows a votive inscription).
• Monks and Nuns: Members of the sangha also contributed.

These donations highlight the widespread support for building these monuments across different social strata.

The Structure Of The Stupa

The word stupa itself means "a heap" in Sanskrit. It began as a simple mound of earth, called the anda. Over time, the structure evolved into a more complex form combining round and square elements.

• Anda: The original semi-circular earthen mound.
• Harmika: A balcony-like structure on top of the anda, symbolising the dwelling place of the gods.
• Yashti: A mast rising from the harmika.
• Chhatri: An umbrella, often surmounting the yashti.
• Railing: A fence enclosing the mound, separating the sacred space from the everyday world.

Early stupas like those at Sanchi and Bharhut had plain anda mounds but elaborate stone railings and richly carved gateways at the four cardinal directions (Fig. 4.11 shows the eastern gateway). Worshippers circumambulated the stupa in a clockwise direction (pradakshina), keeping the mound on their right, mimicking the sun's movement.

Later stupas, such as those at Amaravati and Shahji-ki-Dheri, featured elaborately carved mounds with niches and sculptures. Fig. 4.10a and 4.10b show the plan and elevation of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, illustrating its architectural layout and vertical structure.

In the plan (Fig. 4.10a), the horizontal layout is clearest, showing the outer railing, the pradakshina path, the base of the mound, and the gateways. The elevation (Fig. 4.10b) best shows the vertical aspects, including the height and shape of the mound (anda), the harmika, the yashti, and the chhatri.

Discovering Stupas The Fate Of Amaravati And Sanchi

The discovery of ancient stupas sometimes led to their destruction or the removal of their components. The stupa at Amaravati suffered significantly from this fate.

In 1796, a local raja discovered the ruins of the Amaravati stupa while searching for building material for a temple. He used its stones, believing it might contain buried treasure. Later, in 1854, British official Walter Elliot visited the site, collected numerous sculpture panels (known as the Elliot marbles), and sent them to Madras. He recognised the site as a major Buddhist stupa.

By the mid-19th century, many sculptures from Amaravati were being transported to various locations, including Calcutta, Madras, and even London, often ending up in the gardens of British administrators. Subsequent officials continued this practice. H.H. Cole, an archaeologist, opposed this, advocating for in situ preservation (leaving objects where they were found) and proposing that museums display plaster casts instead. Unfortunately, his plea was not heeded for Amaravati.

Sanchi, however, had a different fate. When it was discovered in 1818, most of its structure, including three of the four gateways, was still intact. Despite suggestions to move the gateways to Paris or London, several factors, including the efforts of the Begums of Bhopal and a growing understanding among scholars of the importance of preserving sites, led to Sanchi being preserved in its original location. This contrast highlights that Amaravati was discovered at a time when the value of in situ preservation was not widely recognised, leading to the dispersion of its sculptures and the ruin of the site, while Sanchi's discovery occurred later, allowing for its successful preservation.

In situ means "on the spot" or "in its original place."

Sculpture

Sculptures were integral to stupas, serving both decorative and narrative purposes. Their aesthetic appeal and perceived value led to many being removed from sites like Amaravati and transported globally. Examining the sculptures provides insights into the beliefs and stories of the time.

Stories In Stone

Sculptures at sites like Sanchi often depict stories, similar to how modern storytellers might use illustrated scrolls. Art historians interpret these sculptures by comparing them with textual accounts. For example, a sculpture that might initially appear as a simple rural scene with huts and trees (Fig. 4.13) is identified by art historians as depicting the Vessantara Jataka, a Buddhist story about a generous prince.

This demonstrates the necessity of consulting literary sources to understand the intended meaning and narrative context of the sculptures.

Symbols Of Worship

Early Buddhist sculptors sometimes chose not to depict the Buddha in human form. Instead, they used symbols to represent his presence and key events in his life. Understanding these requires familiarity with Buddhist hagiographies and traditions.

• An empty seat (Fig. 4.14) symbolised the Buddha's meditation or enlightenment.
• The stupa (Fig. 4.15) represented the mahaparinibbana (the Buddha's final passing away).
• The wheel (Fig. 4.16) stood for the first sermon delivered by the Buddha at Sarnath, known as the "setting in motion the wheel of dharma."

These symbols are not meant to be interpreted literally; the tree, for instance, is not just a tree but represents the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. To interpret such symbols correctly, historians need to understand the belief systems and traditions of the people who created these artworks.

Popular Traditions

Not all sculptures at Sanchi were strictly derived from core Buddhist doctrines. Some motifs seem to reflect popular beliefs and traditions that existed alongside or were integrated into Buddhism.

• The image of a woman holding onto a tree and swinging from the gateway (Fig. 4.17) initially puzzled scholars. Identified as a shalabhanjika from Sanskrit literary traditions, she is believed to be a woman whose touch causes trees to flower and bear fruit. This auspicious symbol was incorporated into the stupa's decoration.
• Depictions of various animals like elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle are prominent (Fig. 4.18 shows an elephant). While some animal stories appear in the Jatakas, many animal carvings likely served to create lively scenes or symbolised human qualities (e.g., elephants symbolising strength and wisdom).
• Another common motif shows a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants pouring water on her (Fig. 4.19). This figure is interpreted by some as Maya, the Buddha's mother, but also as Gajalakshmi, a popular goddess of good fortune associated with elephants. Devotees may have identified the figure with both, indicating the fluidity of religious imagery.
• The motif of the serpent (Fig. 4.21), seen on several pillars, also seems rooted in popular traditions not always documented in texts. Early interpretations like James Fergusson's, based solely on images, sometimes led to conclusions about "tree and serpent worship" at Sanchi, highlighting the challenges of interpreting art without textual context.

These elements suggest that people from diverse backgrounds with pre-Buddhist or non-Buddhist beliefs contributed to and enriched the Buddhist tradition and its artistic expressions.

Paintings From The Past

While stone sculpture is durable and provides significant archaeological evidence, other visual arts like painting also existed. Paintings, particularly those found on cave walls, like the famous ones at Ajanta (Maharashtra), have survived over time (Fig. 4.20 shows an Ajanta painting).

The Ajanta paintings often illustrate stories from the Jatakas, depicting various aspects of life, including court scenes, processions, working people, and festivals. The artists used shading techniques to create depth and a three-dimensional effect. Some paintings exhibit a high degree of naturalism.

New Religious Traditions

The period from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE saw not only the rise of Buddhism and Jainism but also transformations within existing religious traditions, leading to the development of what we now call Hinduism.

The Development Of Mahayana Buddhism

By the first century CE, significant changes were observable in Buddhist thought and practice. Earlier Buddhist teachings emphasised individual effort to achieve liberation (nibbana), viewing the Buddha as a human who achieved enlightenment through his own means.

However, a new idea emerged – the concept of a saviour. This belief system held that a compassionate being could help others achieve salvation. This developed into the concept of Bodhisattas. Bodhisattas were enlightened beings who delayed their own attainment of nibbana to help others on their spiritual path. They accumulated merit but chose to use it for the benefit of all beings rather than entering liberation themselves. The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became a central practice in this evolving tradition.

This new approach was termed Mahayana, meaning the "great vehicle," suggesting a path to salvation accessible to a wider range of people. Those who adhered to this view often referred to the older tradition as Hinayana, the "lesser vehicle."

Hinayana Or Theravada?

The term "Hinayana" was used by supporters of Mahayana Buddhism to refer to other Buddhist traditions. However, followers of the older tradition preferred to call themselves Theravadins. This term means "those who followed the path of old, respected teachers" (theras), indicating their adherence to the original teachings and practices of the earliest monks.

The Growth Of Puranic Hinduism

The concept of a saviour deity was also developing within traditions that form part of modern Hinduism, namely Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva). These traditions saw a growing emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to a chosen deity, visualising the bond between the devotee and the god as one of love and surrender.

• Vaishnavism: Focused on the worship of Vishnu and his various avatars (incarnations). Ten avatars are traditionally recognised, believed to be forms assumed by Vishnu to protect the world from evil and restore order. Different avatars were popular in different regions, and integrating these local deities as forms of Vishnu helped unify the tradition.
• Shaivism: Centered around the worship of Shiva. Shiva was often symbolised by the linga, but was also depicted in human form.

These deities and their avatars were represented in sculptures (Fig. 4.23 shows the Varaha avatar, Fig. 4.24 shows Durga). Sculptures conveyed complex ideas about the deities through their attributes (headdresses, ornaments), posture, and ayudhas (weapons or auspicious objects held in hands).

Interpreting these sculptures requires knowledge of the stories associated with the deities, many of which are found in the Puranas. The Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas around the mid-1st millennium CE, incorporated ancient traditions, stories about gods and goddesses, and were written in simple Sanskrit verse. They were intended to be accessible to everyone, including women and Shudras, who were traditionally excluded from Vedic learning. The content of the Puranas evolved through interactions among diverse people, including priests, merchants, and travellers, leading to the integration of popular beliefs and the widespread worship of deities like Vasudeva-Krishna, originally prominent in the Mathura region.

Building Temples

Around the same time that stupas were developing, the first temples designed to house images of deities were also being constructed. Early temples were simple square rooms called the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), with a single doorway for devotees to enter and worship the image. Over time, a tall structure called the shikhara (tower) was built over the garbhagriha (Fig. 4.25 shows a temple with remnants of a shikhara). Temple walls were often adorned with sculptures depicting religious themes (Fig. 4.26 shows a Vishnu sculpture).

Later temples became much larger and more elaborate, featuring assembly halls, massive walls, grand gateways, and sophisticated water supply arrangements (as seen in examples discussed in Chapter 7).

A distinctive form of early temples involved carving them out of large rocks, creating artificial caves. This tradition dates back to the 3rd century BCE, with some of the earliest examples commissioned by Asoka for renouncers of the Ajivika sect (Fig. 4.27 shows a cave entrance commissioned by Asoka). This practice evolved significantly, culminating in the extraordinary 8th-century Kailashnatha temple at Ellora, carved entirely from a single rock (Fig. 4.28). A copperplate inscription attributed to the chief sculptor of the Kailashnatha temple expresses awe at his own creation, demonstrating the magnitude of this architectural feat.

Can We “See” Everything?

The surviving architectural and sculptural remains offer a glimpse into the rich visual traditions of the past. Despite significant loss over centuries, what remains provides evidence of the skill and vision of ancient artists and builders. However, interpreting these remains is not always straightforward. It's challenging to fully grasp the intended meanings and how these images were understood and venerated by people living two thousand years ago.

Grappling With The Unfamiliar

When European scholars first encountered Indian sculptures of deities in the 19th century, they often found them unfamiliar and even unsettling, especially images with multiple limbs, heads, or combined human-animal forms. To make sense of these, they compared them with the art they knew – classical Greek sculpture.

Initially, they often considered early Indian sculpture inferior to Greek works. However, they were particularly impressed by images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas (Fig. 4.29) found in the northwest (Taxila, Peshawar), which showed clear Greek artistic influence (Gandhara art). Because these images resembled Greek statues, they were considered the best examples of early Indian art by these scholars. This highlights a common approach: using familiar frameworks to understand the unfamiliar, which can sometimes lead to biased interpretations.

If Text And Image Do Not Match …

While comparing sculpture with textual traditions is a more effective interpretation strategy than relying solely on foreign artistic standards, it also presents challenges. One notable example is a large rock-cut sculptural panel at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu) (Fig. 4.30). It clearly depicts a narrative scene, but identifying the specific story remains a subject of debate among art historians.

Some interpret it as the descent of the river Ganga from heaven, with a natural cleft in the rock representing the river, a story found in Puranas and epics. Others argue it depicts a scene from the Mahabharata: Arjuna performing penance on a riverbank to acquire divine weapons, pointing to a prominent ascetic figure in the composition. The ambiguity shows that even with textual sources, interpretations can differ when the connection between text and image isn't explicit or multiple narratives fit the visual cues.

Finally, it's crucial to remember that many religious rituals, beliefs, and practices in the past were not recorded in permanent forms like monuments, sculpture, or paintings. These included daily routines and practices for special occasions. Many communities may have had vibrant traditions but did not necessarily create lasting physical records, meaning that the spectacular material remains we study represent only a fraction of the full picture of ancient religious and philosophical life.