Chapter 5 Through The Eyes Of Travellers

Introduction

Throughout history, people have undertaken journeys for various reasons: seeking employment, escaping natural disasters, engaging in trade, serving as soldiers, priests, or pilgrims, or simply driven by a sense of adventure.

Upon arriving in unfamiliar lands, travellers invariably encounter different landscapes, environments, customs, languages, beliefs, and practices. While many adapt to these differences, some, particularly insightful observers, record their observations, focusing on what they perceive as unusual or noteworthy. Although women also travelled, their accounts are largely absent from the historical record.

Surviving travel accounts are diverse in their focus. Some detail court affairs, while others concentrate on religious practices, architectural features, or monuments. For instance, valuable insights into the city of Vijayanagara in the 15th century come from the account of Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, a diplomat from Herat.

Even within empires like the Mughal Empire (Chapters 8 and 9), administrators sometimes travelled and documented local customs, folklore, and traditions.

This chapter focuses on the perspectives of three prominent travellers who visited the Indian subcontinent between the 10th and 17th centuries, providing unique views of its society: Al-Biruni (from Uzbekistan, 11th century), Ibn Battuta (from Morocco, 14th century), and François Bernier (from France, 17th century).

These travellers came from distinct social and cultural backgrounds, making them keenly observant of everyday Indian activities and practices that were often considered mundane and therefore not recorded by local writers (like the coconut and paan, Fig 5.1a and 5.1b). This difference in perspective makes their accounts valuable historical sources. The specific audience for whom these travellers wrote varied, influencing the content and style of their works.

Al-Biruni And The Kitab-Ul-Hind

Al-Biruni (973-1048) was a scholar from Khwarizm, a significant centre of learning in modern-day Uzbekistan.

From Khwarizm To The Punjab

Al-Biruni received a comprehensive education and was proficient in multiple languages, including Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. Although he did not know Greek, he was familiar with the works of Greek philosophers like Plato through Arabic translations.

In 1017, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Khwarizm and took many scholars, including Al-Biruni, back to his capital. Initially a hostage, Al-Biruni developed an affinity for Ghazni, where he lived until his death.

It was in Ghazni that Al-Biruni's interest in India blossomed. This was facilitated by existing intellectual contacts, as Sanskrit works on subjects like astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had been translated into Arabic since the 8th century. When Punjab became part of the Ghaznavid empire, interactions with the local populace fostered an environment conducive to learning.

Al-Biruni spent several years with Brahmana scholars and priests, dedicating himself to learning Sanskrit and studying Indian religious and philosophical texts. While his exact travel route is unclear, he likely travelled widely within Punjab and parts of northern India. Travel writing was already a recognised genre in Arabic literature, covering vast regions from the Sahara to the Volga River. Thus, while Al-Biruni's work might not have been widely read *within* India before 1500, it found an audience elsewhere.

Al-Biruni's linguistic skills were key to his work, enabling him to compare languages and translate texts. He translated Sanskrit works, including Patanjali's grammar, into Arabic. He also translated Greek mathematician Euclid's works into Sanskrit for his Brahmana associates.

Al-Biruni himself stated his work aimed to assist those wanting to discuss religious matters with Hindus and to provide information for those interacting with them (Source 1).

Answer:

The term "Hindu" originated from the Old Persian word for the region east of the Sindhu (Indus) river (c. 6th-5th centuries BCE). Arabs adopted this usage, referring to the region as "al-Hind" and its people as "Hindi." Later, Turks called the people east of the Indus "Hindu," their land "Hindustan," and their language "Hindavi." These terms initially referred to geographical and cultural identity, not religious affiliation. The religious connotation developed much later.

The Kitab-Ul-Hind

Al-Biruni's most famous work is the Kitab-ul-Hind (literally, 'Book of India'), written in clear and simple Arabic. This extensive text comprises 80 chapters covering diverse subjects:

• Religion and philosophy
• Festivals
• Astronomy
• Alchemy
• Manners and customs
• Social life
• Weights and measures (Metrology)
• Iconography
• Laws

Each chapter typically follows a systematic structure: starting with a question, followed by a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison to other cultures. This precise, almost mathematical, structure is considered a hallmark of Al-Biruni's writing, reflecting his scientific background.

Writing in Arabic, Al-Biruni likely intended his work for audiences outside the subcontinent, particularly those in areas bordering India. He was aware of existing Arabic translations of Indian texts but aimed to provide a more comprehensive and structured account, being critical of the quality of some earlier translations.

Ibn Battuta’S Rihla

Ibn Battuta (1304-1377) was a Moroccan traveller whose travelogue, the Rihla (literally, 'Travels'), provides rich details about life in the 14th-century subcontinent.

An Early Globe-Trotter

Born into a respected family in Tangier, Morocco, known for their expertise in Islamic religious law (shari'a), Ibn Battuta received a good education. However, he valued personal travel experience above book learning (Source 2).

Answer:

Before arriving in India in 1332-33, he had already undertaken pilgrimages to Mecca and travelled extensively across North Africa, West Asia, and East African coastal ports. He reached Sind in 1333 by overland routes through Central Asia.

Drawn by the reputation of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq as a generous patron, he journeyed to Delhi. Impressed by Ibn Battuta's scholarship, the Sultan appointed him as the qazi (judge) of Delhi. He held this position for several years but later fell out of favour and was imprisoned. After reconciliation, he was reinstated and sent as the Sultan's envoy to the Mongol ruler in China in 1342.

His journey to China involved travelling through central India to the Malabar coast, a stay in the Maldives (serving as qazi), a visit to Sri Lanka, and further travels along the Malabar coast, Maldives, Bengal, and Assam before finally sailing to Sumatra and then to the Chinese port of Zaytun (Quanzhou). He travelled widely in China, even visiting Beijing, before returning home in 1347.

Ibn Battuta's extensive travels make him comparable to Marco Polo, who visited China and India in the late 13th century.

Travelling in the 14th century was arduous and dangerous (Fig. 5.3 depicts robbers attacking travellers). Ibn Battuta provides details on travel times: 40 days from Multan to Delhi, 50 days from Sind to Delhi, 40 days from Daulatabad to Delhi. He was attacked by robbers multiple times and preferred travelling in caravans, although even these were not always safe. His personal account of falling ill and feeling homesick during his travels underscores the challenges (Source on the lonely traveller).

Despite the dangers, travelling in caravans offered some measure of safety in numbers, as well as companionship. The image of a boat carrying armed passengers (Fig 5.4) suggests that even riverine travel might have faced threats, or that travellers were prepared for potential dangers during their journeys which often involved disembarking and traveling overland.

The Enjoyment Of Curiosities

Ibn Battuta was an eager observer of new cultures, people, and practices. Upon his return to Morocco, the ruler instructed that his experiences be recorded, leading to the creation of the Rihla. The purpose was to document the places he saw and the "interesting events which had clung to his memory," as well as encounters with rulers, scholars, and saints (Source 3).

Answer:

The Rihla was intended to provide both education and entertainment by detailing "curious particulars" and "marvellous things," aiming to impress the audience with descriptions of distant lands. Ibn Battuta's approach often involved highlighting the unfamiliar and exotic. His fascination with differences is a key characteristic of his writing.

Other travellers followed in the footsteps of Al-Biruni and Ibn Battuta. Between 1400 and 1800, many wrote travelogues in Persian (Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, Mahmud Wali Balkhi, Shaikh Ali Hazin). Some were deeply impressed by India, while others were critical, reflecting varied expectations and experiences. These works contributed to the circulation of ideas about India outside the subcontinent (Fig 5.5 shows travellers around a campfire, perhaps sharing stories).

François Bernier A Doctor With A Difference

With the arrival of the Portuguese in India around 1500, more Europeans began writing about Indian society and customs. Notable Portuguese writers include Duarte Barbosa, who described trade and society in south India, and the Jesuit Roberto Nobili, who translated Indian texts.

After 1600, the number of Dutch, English, and French travellers increased. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a French jeweller, travelled to India multiple times, focusing on trading conditions (Fig. 5.7 shows Tavernier in Indian clothes). Some, like the Italian doctor Manucci, settled in India permanently.

François Bernier (1620-1688) was a French doctor, political philosopher, and historian who came to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities. He resided in India from 1656 to 1668, holding positions like physician to Prince Dara Shukoh and associating with Armenian noble Danishmand Khan.

Comparing East And West

Bernier's writings about his travels in India are marked by frequent comparisons between India and Europe, particularly France. His primary objective seems to have been to influence policy and intellectual discourse in Europe by presenting India in a specific light. He dedicated his main work to King Louis XIV of France and wrote letters to influential officials, often portraying India negatively compared to Europe.

Bernier's assessment was not always accurate, but his published works gained immense popularity in Europe. His 'Travels in the Mughal Empire' (published 1670-71) was quickly translated into several European languages and reprinted numerous times, indicating a strong European interest in his portrayal of India. This widespread circulation of printed books by European travellers played a significant role in shaping European perceptions of India, contrasting with the manuscript circulation of Arabic and Persian accounts (Source on the creation and circulation of ideas about India).

Bernier's travels, often accompanying the Mughal army (Source 4), provided him with diverse observations on Indian life and logistical arrangements.

Answer:

Bernier's account of India frequently employed binary opposition, presenting India as the opposite or "inverse" of Europe. He also ranked these perceived differences hierarchically, consistently portraying India as inferior to the Western world. This approach aimed to reinforce European notions of superiority.

Making Sense Of An Alien World Al-Biruni And The Sanskritic Tradition

Travellers developed different strategies to understand and describe unfamiliar cultures. Al-Biruni approached this task methodically, acknowledging specific "barriers" to understanding Indian society from an outsider's perspective.

Overcoming Barriers To Understanding

Al-Biruni identified three main obstacles:

1. Language: He found Sanskrit vastly different from Arabic and Persian, making accurate translation of ideas and concepts difficult (Source on Sanskrit language complexity).
2. Religious Beliefs and Practices: Differences in religious outlook presented a significant barrier.
3. Insularity: He perceived the local population as self-absorbed and resistant to engaging with outsiders.

Despite these acknowledged difficulties, Al-Biruni relied heavily, almost exclusively, on Brahmanical texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali, Manusmriti) to explain Indian society. This reliance meant his understanding was primarily shaped by the perspectives and norms presented in these prescriptive Sanskrit texts.

Despite relying on these texts, Al-Biruni did not blindly accept everything. When presented with accounts he found improbable, such as a wooden idol supposedly lasting for millennia, he expressed scepticism based on rational observation, questioning how wood could survive so long in a wet climate, concluding with "God knows best!" This shows an element of critical thinking alongside his use of local texts.

Al-Biruni’S Description Of The Caste System

Al-Biruni attempted to explain the Indian caste system by drawing parallels with social divisions in other societies, noting a fourfold social hierarchy in ancient Persia (knights/princes, monks/priests/lawyers, physicians/scientists, peasants/artisans). This was his way of showing that social stratification was not unique to India. He also contrasted this with the Islamic principle of equality among all men, where differences were based only on piety.

Al-Biruni provided an account of the four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) based on the Brahmanical concept of their origin from different parts of the primeval man (Brahman/Purusha) (Source 5).

Answer:

Despite his acceptance of the textual description of the varna system, Al-Biruni was critical of the concept of pollution associated with it. He argued that natural elements like the sun and salt naturally purify things, making the idea of inherent social pollution contrary to the laws of nature and practicality, as life would be impossible if impurities could not be cleansed.

Al-Biruni's account, based on normative texts, portrayed the caste system as relatively rigid. However, in reality, it was more complex. Groups classified as antyaja (born outside the system) were often subjected to social oppression but were integral to the economic system, providing essential labour.

Ibn Battuta And The Excitement Of The Unfamiliar

By the 14th century, when Ibn Battuta visited, the Indian subcontinent was linked into a vast global communication network spanning from China to North Africa and Europe. Ibn Battuta's extensive travels within this network allowed him to experience the cosmopolitan nature of urban centres where diverse people interacted.

He was particularly drawn to highlighting anything that seemed unfamiliar or extraordinary to his audience, aiming to impress them with accounts of distant, accessible worlds. His Rihla contains anecdotes about pious individuals, generous and cruel rulers, and the lives of ordinary people, always with an eye for novelty.

The Coconut And The Paan

Ibn Battuta's descriptions of the coconut and paan serve as prime examples of his strategy of representing the unfamiliar through comparisons and vivid detail, making them comprehensible and intriguing to his audience who had never seen them.

Regarding the coconut, he compared the trees to date-palms and the nuts to a man's head due to the presence of "two eyes and a mouth" (Source 6). He described the interior when green as resembling "brain" and the fibre as "hair." He also noted its practical uses (cords, cables for ships). These comparisons are appropriate in that they relate the unknown (coconut) to something known (date-palms, human features) to aid imagination. He conveys its unusual nature through the detail of its appearance and comparison to a head. His description of the external features and uses is accurate, though the "brain" comparison is figurative.

Answer:

His description of the paan (betel leaves) also focuses on its cultivation (like grapevines), appearance (no fruit, only leaves), and the process of chewing it with areca nut and chalk (Source 7). This practice, involving multiple ingredients and steps, was clearly intriguing due to its novelty and local popularity.

Answer:

Ibn Battuta used descriptions based on comparison with familiar objects (date-palms, human head, grapevine) and detailed explanations of processes (chewing paan) to describe the unfamiliar. He also highlighted striking or useful aspects (coconut fiber for ships) to convey their unusual nature and functionality.

Ibn Battuta And Indian Cities

Ibn Battuta was impressed by Indian cities, viewing them as offering numerous opportunities, especially for skilled and ambitious individuals. He found them to be densely populated and largely prosperous, despite occasional disruptions from conflicts.

He described cities with crowded streets and vibrant, well-stocked markets (bazaars). Delhi was noted as a vast city with a huge population, the largest in India, rivalled only by Daulatabad in size. Bazaars were not just commercial centers but also social and cultural hubs, often featuring mosques, temples, and public spaces for performances by entertainers (Source 9 describes the market for singers in Daulatabad).

Answer:

Although Ibn Battuta didn't explicitly analyse the economic basis of urban prosperity, his account suggests cities thrived by appropriating surplus from highly productive agriculture (farmers cultivated two crops annually). He also noted India's strong integration into inter-Asian trade networks. Indian manufactured goods, including various textiles (cotton, muslin, silk, brocade, satin), were highly demanded in West Asia and Southeast Asia, benefiting artisans and merchants (Fig 5.10 shows textile patterns). Fine varieties of muslin were particularly valuable.

Ibn Battuta noted specific architectural features in Delhi, including the ramparts with houses for guards, store-houses, magazines, and gates. He described the rampart's construction (stone base, brick upper part), towers, windows, and the total number of gates (28), mentioning specific gates like the Budaun darwaza and features near others (grain market, orchard). He also described the cemetery with its domed or arched graves and cultivated flowers, highlighting the attention paid to burial sites.

A Unique System Of Communication

The state actively supported merchants through measures like providing inns and guesthouses along trade routes. Ibn Battuta was particularly impressed by the efficiency of the postal system, which facilitated rapid communication, credit transfer, and even the dispatch of goods over long distances. He noted that news could travel from Sind to Delhi in just five days via the postal system, compared to the fifty days it took for a person to travel the same distance.

He described the postal system as having two types: the horse-post (uluq), with stations every four miles, and the foot-post (dawa), with three stations per mile. The foot-post involved runners carrying a rod with bells, passing messages or light goods rapidly between stations. The foot-post was even faster than the horse-post and was used for transporting items like fruits from Khurasan (Source 10).

Answer:

Ibn Battuta handled the problem of describing unfamiliar things by using analogies to objects or concepts known to his audience (coconut like a date-palm/human head, paan cultivated like a grapevine) and by providing vivid, detailed descriptions of their appearance, use, or the processes involved. He also highlighted any aspects that were particularly strange, impressive, or functional to convey their novelty and significance.

Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, another traveller (15th century), also noted the unfamiliar, describing people in Calicut as a "strange nation," but was also impressed by the craft and artistry seen in a temple in Mangalore (Source on strange nation).

Bernier And The Degenerate East

François Bernier's approach differed from Ibn Battuta's. While Ibn Battuta focused on the exciting and unfamiliar, Bernier was more analytical and critical, constantly comparing India with Europe (especially France), often highlighting negative aspects. His goal was to influence European opinion and policy, portraying Mughal India as a cautionary tale.

His 'Travels in the Mughal Empire' is characterised by detailed observations, critical analysis, and reflections on the nature of the Mughal state and society, placed within a universal framework. His comparison consistently emphasised Europe's superiority, using binary opposition to present India as a degraded or "degenerate" version of the West.

The Question Of Landownership

A central point of Bernier's critique was the perceived lack of private property in land in Mughal India. He was a strong advocate for private property, believing its absence was detrimental to both the state and its people. He asserted that the Mughal emperor owned all land and distributed it among his nobles, leading to disastrous consequences for the economy and society. This idea of "crown ownership" was a common perception among European travellers of the 16th and 17th centuries.

Bernier argued that because landholders (nobles) could not pass land to their descendants, they had no incentive for long-term investment in improving production or the land itself. He claimed this resulted in the ruin of agriculture, severe oppression of peasants, and a decline in living standards for everyone except the ruling elite (Source 11 describes the plight of the peasantry).

Answer:

Bernier's depiction was influenced by contemporary European debates about governance and aimed to caution against adopting a system like the Mughal one (Source 12 presents his warning to European kings).

Answer:

Bernier saw the Mughal Empire as ruled by a "king of beggars and barbarians," with ruined cities and neglected, unproductive fields, all stemming from the supposed crown ownership of land. However, Mughal documents do not support the idea of the state being the sole landowner. Abu'l Fazl, Akbar's chronicler, described land revenue as a claim by the ruler for protection, not rent. European travellers might have misinterpreted high revenue demands as rent.

Bernier's views influenced later Western thinkers, including Montesquieu, who developed the concept of oriental despotism, portraying Asian rulers as absolute despots whose subjects lived in poverty due to the absence of private property. Karl Marx further adapted this into the concept of the Asiatic mode of production, characterising India as a stagnant society of internally egalitarian villages where the state appropriated surplus.

However, this picture of rural stagnation and uniformity is contradicted by evidence showing significant social and economic differentiation in rural society during the 16th and 17th centuries, with large zamindars at one end and landless labourers at the other, and varying levels of wealth among peasants (as seen in Chapter 8).

A More Complex Social Reality

Despite his overall negative portrayal, Bernier's descriptions occasionally reveal details that suggest a more nuanced social reality than his "degenerate East" thesis. While he claimed artisans lacked incentive due to state appropriation of profits, he also acknowledged the massive inflow of gold and silver into India as payment for exported manufactures (Fig 5.12 shows the quality of Mughal craftsmanship). This indicates a thriving manufacturing sector capable of producing goods highly valued internationally. He also noted the existence of a prosperous merchant class engaged in long-distance trade (Source 13 highlights the fertility of Bengal and the export of goods).

Answer:

Mughal cities, despite Bernier's labelling them as transient "camp towns" dependent on the imperial presence (Source 14 describes imperial workshops), were more complex. Around 15% of the population lived in towns, a higher proportion than in Western Europe then. India had diverse types of towns: manufacturing, trading, port, and sacred centres, indicating a vibrant urban economy independent of solely imperial patronage.

Answer:

Merchant communities had strong social and kinship networks, often organised into caste-based bodies (mahajans, led by a sheth; nagarsheth in Ahmedabad). Other urban professionals included physicians, teachers, lawyers, artists, and calligraphers, who served both patrons and the general public, indicating a diverse and complex urban social structure.

Women Slaves, Sati And Labourers

Travellers often noted the condition of women, though their observations were shaped by their own cultural perspectives and sometimes took social inequalities for granted.

Slavery was a visible aspect of Indian society, with slaves openly traded in markets and given as gifts (Source 15).

Answer:

Ibn Battuta noted that female slaves were employed in tasks ranging from skilled music and dance to espionage within noble households. Slaves were essential for domestic tasks and transportation, such as carrying people in palanquins. The low price of female domestic slaves meant many families could afford them.

European travellers often highlighted the practice of sati (widow immolation) as a stark difference from Western societies. Bernier described it in detail, noting both instances where women seemed willing and cases where they were forced, expressing his anguish over a child bride forced onto the pyre (Source 16).

Answer:

Despite the focus on practices like sati, women's lives encompassed much more. They were crucial to agricultural and non-agricultural labour. Women from merchant families participated in business and even legal matters, suggesting they were not strictly confined to domestic spaces.

While travellers' accounts offer valuable insights, they are shaped by the observers' cultural backgrounds and interests. They often miss or underreport the lives of ordinary people, such as women labourers, who did not fit the exotic or political narratives that interested them (Fig 5.13 depicts travellers and modes of transport). Furthermore, the experiences of Indian travellers visiting other lands remain largely unknown, representing an area for future historical research.

In Fig 5.13, the modes of transport shown include:

• Foot travel: People walking.
• Bullock carts: A cart pulled by oxen.
• Horseback: People riding horses.
• Camel: People riding a camel.