Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara

Introduction

Vijayanagara, meaning "city of victory," was both the name of an important city and the powerful empire it headed. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century and, at its peak, controlled a vast territory stretching from the Krishna River in the north to the southernmost tip of the peninsula. In 1565, the city itself was attacked and looted, leading to its eventual abandonment. Although it fell into ruins, its memory persisted among the local population in the Krishna-Tungabhadra river basin, who knew it as Hampi, a name derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.

The historical record of the Vijayanagara Empire has been reconstructed by combining several types of sources:

• Oral traditions (local memories referring to the site as Hampi).
• Archaeological finds (excavated remains).
• Monuments and inscriptions found at the site.
• Accounts left by foreign travellers.
• Literature written in various regional languages (Telugu, Kannada, Tamil) and Sanskrit.

These diverse sources have allowed scholars to rediscover and study this once-great imperial capital.

The Discovery Of Hampi

The ruins of Hampi were brought to scholarly attention in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie (1754-1821), an engineer and antiquarian employed by the English East India Company. Mackenzie, who later became the first Surveyor General of India in 1815, created the first survey map of the site (Fig. 7.2 shows Mackenzie with his assistants).

His initial understanding of the site was significantly informed by the oral traditions and memories of the priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi, the local goddess. These local accounts provided vital clues to identify and understand the ruins.

Following Mackenzie's work, the study of Hampi advanced through other means:

• From 1856, photographers began systematically documenting the monuments, providing visual records for scholarly study.
• By 1836, epigraphists started collecting inscriptions found at Hampi temples, crucial for dating events and understanding administrative and social structures.

Historians then collated information from these archaeological and epigraphic sources with accounts of foreign travellers and contemporary literature in various languages to reconstruct the history of Vijayanagara and its empire.

Mackenzie's work was driven by both scholarly curiosity and a practical aim to facilitate British governance by understanding India's past institutions and customs (Source on Colin Mackenzie). He viewed the Vijayanagara period as one of "bad management" before the arrival of British rule, indicating a colonial bias in his perspective. (In Fig 7.2, the artist likely portrayed Mackenzie as a central, authoritative figure, possibly slightly elevated, surrounded by his Indian assistants and informers who are depicted in deferential postures or roles, such as Kistnaji holding a telescope, symbolising the British as the active investigators using technology, and the Brahmana assistants providing local knowledge. This reinforces the narrative of European leadership in discovery, with Indian knowledge serving as assistance).

Rayas, Nayakas And Sultans

According to both tradition and inscriptional evidence, the Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka. The empire's boundaries were fluid, encompassing people who spoke different languages and adhered to various religious traditions. Contemporaries referred to the empire as the Karnataka samrajyamu, meaning "Karnataka empire," while historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire.

On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings, who called themselves rayas, were in constant competition with the Bahmani Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa. This rivalry was primarily over control of the fertile river valleys and the economic resources derived from lucrative overseas trade. Despite the conflicts, there was significant cultural exchange, particularly in architecture, with Vijayanagara rulers borrowing and adapting building techniques from their rivals.

Areas incorporated into the empire had a history of powerful states like the Cholas and Hoysalas, known for patronising grand temples (Brihadishvara at Thanjavur, Chennakeshava at Belur). The rayas built upon these existing traditions of temple construction, taking them to new levels of scale and grandeur (Fig. 7.3 shows the gopuram of Brihadishvara temple, illustrating the architectural scale that influenced Vijayanagara builders).

The title Gajapati, meaning "lord of elephants," was used by the ruling lineage in 15th-century Orissa, reflecting the importance of elephants in warfare. In Vijayanagara popular tradition, Deccan Sultans were called ashvapati ("lord of horses"), and the rayas were called narapati ("lord of men"), highlighting the respective military strengths and self-perceptions of these powers.

Kings And Traders

Effective cavalry was crucial for warfare, making the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia vital. Initially dominated by Arab traders, this trade also involved local merchant communities known as kudirai chettis ("horse merchants"). The arrival of the Portuguese on the west coast in 1498 introduced new players who established trading and military bases. Their superior military technology, especially muskets, made them significant participants in regional politics. (Source 2 provides Krishnadeva Raya's perspective on trade).

Answer:

Vijayanagara was a major market for spices, textiles, and precious stones. Trade was a status symbol for the city, fueled by the demand for high-value exotic goods from its wealthy population. Revenue from trade contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.

The Apogee And Decline Of The Empire

Within the Vijayanagara polity, power struggles occurred between members of the ruling lineage and military commanders. The empire saw several ruling dynasties:

• Sangama Dynasty: Ruled until 1485.
• Saluvas: Military commanders who took power, ruling until 1503.
• Tuluvas: Replaced the Saluvas. Krishnadeva Raya, the most famous ruler, belonged to this dynasty (ruled 1509-29).

Krishnadeva Raya's reign marked the peak of the empire's expansion and consolidation. He acquired the fertile Raichur doab (land between Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers) in 1512, subdued the rulers of Orissa in 1514, and defeated the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520. Despite constant military readiness, the empire experienced great peace and prosperity under him. He is credited with building temples, adding impressive gopurams (gateways) to southern temples, and founding a suburban town, Nagalapuram, named after his mother.

After Krishnadeva Raya's death in 1529, the empire faced challenges from rebellious nayakas (military chiefs). By 1542, control shifted to the Aravidu dynasty, which ruled until the late 17th century, shifting the capital eastward. Rivalries and shifting alliances with the Deccan Sultanates were common. This ultimately led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara.

In 1565, Rama Raya, Vijayanagara's chief minister, led the army in the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota), where they were decisively defeated by the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked and subsequently abandoned the city of Vijayanagara within a few years (Map 1 shows South India during this period with key locations).

Despite the final conflict, relations between Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates were not always hostile. Krishnadeva Raya supported claimants to power in the Sultanates and even used the title "establisher of the Yavana kingdom" (Yavana, a term for people from the northwest, often used for Turks/Muslims). The Sultan of Bijapur also intervened in Vijayanagara's succession disputes. Both sides had an interest in each other's stability. It was Rama Raya's aggressive policy of manipulating the Sultans against each other that provoked their unified response and led to the empire's downfall.

The Rayas And The Nayakas

Military chiefs, known as nayakas, held significant power within the empire. They controlled forts and maintained armed forces. Nayakas often relocated and were accompanied by peasants seeking fertile land. They typically spoke Telugu or Kannada. While many submitted to the authority of the rayas, they sometimes rebelled and had to be suppressed militarily.

The amara-nayaka system was a significant political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire, likely influenced by the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. Under this system, the raya granted territories to military commanders (amara-nayakas) to govern. They were responsible for collecting taxes and dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders within their assigned areas.

The amara-nayakas retained a portion of the collected revenue for their personal use and for maintaining a specific contingent of horses and elephants. These military forces were crucial for the Vijayanagara kings, enabling them to control the entire southern peninsula. Some revenue was also allocated for the upkeep of temples and irrigation works.

Amara-nayakas paid annual tribute to the king and presented themselves at the royal court with gifts as a sign of loyalty. The kings exercised control by occasionally transferring nayakas to different areas. However, during the seventeenth century, many nayakas asserted their independence, contributing to the collapse of the central imperial structure.

Vijayanagara The Capital And Its Environs

Like other imperial capitals, Vijayanagara had a distinct physical layout and architectural style. Foreign travellers' accounts provide valuable descriptions (Source on finding out about the city, Source 3 describes the city).

Answer:

Key zones of the city included fortifications, water systems, the royal centre, the sacred centre, and the urban core (Fig. 7.4 shows a plan of Vijayanagara).

The plan shows extensive fortifications enclosing different areas. Channels connected to the Tungabhadra are visible, supplying water to various parts. The Sacred Centre was fortified, like other key zones.

Water Resources

Vijayanagara was strategically located in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra river and surrounded by granite hills. This semi-arid region required sophisticated water management. Embankments were built across streams flowing from the hills to create reservoirs of various sizes. (Source 4 describes the construction of a large tank by Krishnadeva Raya).

Answer:

A particularly important tank, the Kamalapuram tank, was built in the early 15th century, irrigating nearby fields and supplying water to the "royal centre." The Hiriya canal, drawing water from the Tungabhadra, was another prominent waterwork, irrigating the cultivated valley between the "sacred centre" and the "urban core." These sophisticated systems were crucial for sustaining the large population and agricultural activities within the city's fortified area (Fig. 7.5 shows an aqueduct).

Fortifications And Roads

Vijayanagara was famously fortified, with Abdur Razzaq noting seven lines of forts. These walls encompassed not only the urban area but also agricultural land and forests, a strategic decision to prevent defenders from being starved during long sieges. The outermost wall connected the surrounding hills. The masonry was massive and slightly tapered, using wedge-shaped stone blocks held in place without mortar, with rubble filling the inner portion. Bastions projected outwards.

The inclusion of agricultural tracts within the fortifications was a remarkable feature, noted by both Abdur Razzaq and Paes. This ensured food supply during extended sieges, a more comprehensive strategy than just storing grain. There were also inner lines of fortification around the urban complex and the royal centre. Each major building within the royal centre had its own high walls.

Access to the fort was via well-guarded gates. The architectural style of some gateways, featuring arches and domes (Fig. 7.6), is seen as Indo-Islamic, reflecting influences from Turkish Sultanates and interaction with local building practices. (Fig. 7.7 shows a large gopuram, a typical south Indian temple gateway style. Compared to the fortification gateway (Fig 7.6), the gopuram is significantly taller, highly decorated with intricate sculpture, and often tapers upwards with multiple tiers, culminating in a barrel-vaulted roof. The fortification gateway is simpler, primarily functional, featuring arches and a dome. Both serve as entrances, but the gopuram also functions as a monumental, sacred portal, while the fortification gateway is primarily defensive. Rulers adopted Indo-Islamic elements possibly due to interaction with Deccan Sultanates, strategic alliances, employing foreign artisans, or appreciating the architectural style for its aesthetic appeal and grandeur in certain structures like gateways, showcasing a cosmopolitan outlook).

Archaeologists have traced roads within and leading out of the city using gateways and pavement evidence (Fig. 7.8). Roads typically followed the terrain of the valleys. Important roads often led from temple gateways and were lined with bazaars (markets).

The Urban Core

Archaeological evidence for the houses of ordinary people in the urban core is limited, as they were likely made of perishable materials like thatch (as described by Barbosa). However, surveys reveal the presence of numerous shrines and small temples across the area, suggesting diverse religious practices supported by various communities. Wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks were likely sources of water for the town dwellers.

The presence of fine Chinese porcelain shards (Fig. 7.9) in some areas, like the north-eastern part of the urban core, suggests these were inhabited by wealthy traders. This area was also a Muslim residential quarter, with tombs and mosques whose architecture sometimes resembled the mandapas found in Hampi temples, indicating cultural interaction (Fig. 7.10 shows a mosque with such features).

The porcelain shards likely belonged to fine bowls or dishes imported from China, indicating trade links and the consumption patterns of the wealthy inhabitants in that area. The mosque's architecture showing similarity to temple mandapas suggests cultural exchange and adaptation of local building styles, blending Indo-Islamic architectural elements with regional characteristics.

The Royal Centre

Located in the southwestern part of the settlement, the royal centre was an important zone, despite its name encompassing over 60 temples in addition to palatial structures. The presence of numerous temples highlights the significant role of religious patronage in legitimising the authority of the rulers, who sought association with the divine.

About thirty building complexes within this zone have been identified as palaces. These are large structures without clear ritual functions. Unlike temples which were built entirely of masonry, the upper parts of these secular buildings were constructed using materials that have not survived over time.

The Mahanavami Dibba

Some prominent structures in the royal centre are named based on their form or assumed function. The "king's palace" is the largest complex but lacks definitive evidence of being a royal residence. It contains two striking platforms: the "audience hall" and the "mahanavami dibba" (Fig. 7.11 shows the Mahanavami Dibba).

The audience hall is a high platform with closely spaced slots for wooden pillars, supporting an upper floor. Its purpose is unclear due to the limited space created by the pillars. The "mahanavami dibba" is a massive platform, approximately 11,000 sq ft at the base and 40 ft high, believed to have supported a wooden structure. Its base is covered with elaborate relief carvings (Fig. 7.12).

Rituals associated with this structure likely took place during the Mahanavami festival (part of the ten-day autumn festival like Dusehra/Durga Puja/Navaratri). This festival was a major occasion for Vijayanagara kings to display their prestige, power, and authority. Ceremonies included worshipping images, the state horse, and animal sacrifices (buffaloes). Dances, wrestling, processions of richly adorned horses, elephants, chariots, soldiers, and ritual presentations by nayakas and subordinate kings marked the event. On the final day, the king inspected his and his nayakas' armies in a grand ceremony, receiving gifts and tribute.

While the Mahanavami Dibba is believed to be central to these rituals, scholars debate whether the surrounding space was large enough for all the described processions. Like other structures in the royal centre, its exact use remains somewhat mysterious.

A House Of Victory?

Domingo Paes referred to the audience hall and the Mahanavami Dibba collectively as the "House of Victory." He described the platforms, the cloth-covered room for the idol, and the dais for the throne (Source on a House of Victory).

Other Buildings In The Royal Centre

The Lotus Mahal (Fig. 7.15, with elevation in Fig. 7.13), named by British travellers, is one of the most aesthetically pleasing buildings in the royal centre. Despite the romantic name, its exact function is debated, though a map by Mackenzie suggested it might have been a council chamber. The architecture features arches, possibly inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques (Fig. 7.14 shows detail of an arch).

While the majority of temples were in the sacred centre, several were located in the royal centre, demonstrating the intertwining of political and religious authority. The Hazara Rama temple, likely for the king and his family, is a notable example. Although images from the central shrine are missing, sculpted panels on the walls depict scenes from the Ramayana (Fig. 7.18).

Many structures were destroyed during the sacking of the city, but the building traditions, including palatial structures, were continued by the nayakas after the empire's decline (Fig. 7.19 shows the interior of an audience hall built by nayakas in Madurai).

The Sacred Centre

The northern end of the city, along the Tungabhadra river, constituted the sacred centre, characterised by rocky hills. Local traditions associated these hills with mythological sites, such as the monkey kingdom from the Ramayana. Another tradition links the area to Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, who is said to have performed penance here to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom and a form of Shiva. Their marriage is still celebrated annually at the Virupaksha temple. Jaina temples from the pre-Vijayanagara period are also found here, indicating the area's long-standing sacred significance.

Choosing A Capital

The tradition of temple building in the region was well-established, with dynasties like the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas having built numerous temples. Rulers often promoted temple construction to associate themselves with the divine and enhance their legitimacy; sometimes, the deity was implicitly or explicitly linked to the king. Temples also served as centres of learning, and rulers and others made grants for their maintenance, making them significant religious, social, cultural, and economic institutions. From a ruler's perspective, building and maintaining temples demonstrated their power, wealth, and piety, helping them gain support and recognition.

The very location of Vijayanagara was likely chosen because of the existing shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi, giving the city a sacred foundation. The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha, signing all royal orders "Shri Virupaksha." They also asserted their connection to the divine and proclaimed their status using the title "Hindu Suratrana," a Sanskritisation of the Arabic "Sultan," meaning "Hindu Sultan."

While building upon earlier traditions, Vijayanagara rulers also introduced innovations. Royal portrait sculptures were displayed in temples, and the king's temple visits were elevated to important state occasions attended by important nayakas, publicly reinforcing the link between royalty and the divine. (Fig. 7.20 shows an aerial view of the Virupaksha temple, and Fig. 7.21 is its plan).

Gopurams And Mandapas

Temple architecture during this period saw the emergence of new features, often on a monumental scale, signifying imperial authority. The most prominent were the raya gopurams ("royal gateways," Fig. 7.7), massive structures that often overshadowed the central shrine towers. These towering gateways announced the temple's presence from a distance and served as reminders of the king's power to command resources for such constructions. Other distinctive features included large mandapas (pavilions, Fig. 7.22) and long, pillared corridors encircling the shrines.

The Virupaksha temple, built over centuries, was substantially expanded under the Vijayanagara Empire. Krishnadeva Raya added a hall in front of the main shrine (decorated with carved pillars, Fig. 7.23) and the eastern gopuram. These additions made the central shrine a relatively small part of the large complex. Temple halls served various functions, including spaces for divine images to witness performances or for celebrating divine marriages (kalyana mandapa).

The Vitthala temple is another important shrine, dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu popular in Maharashtra. Its inclusion indicates the Vijayanagara rulers' integration of different traditions to create an imperial culture. This temple also features several halls and a unique stone shrine designed as a chariot (Fig. 7.24).

A characteristic feature of temple complexes was the presence of chariot streets, straight roads paved with stone slabs extending from the gopuram. These streets were lined with pillared pavilions, serving as market spaces for merchants. Just as nayakas continued the tradition of building fortifications, they also continued and elaborated upon temple building traditions, constructing some of the most spectacular gopurams (Fig. 7.26 shows a gopuram built by Madurai Nayakas).

Plotting Palaces, Temples And Bazaars

Studying Vijayanagara relies on a wealth of documentation, including photographs, plans, elevations, and sculpture analysis. After Mackenzie's initial surveys, information was compiled from travellers' accounts and inscriptions. The site's preservation was undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums throughout the 20th century. Hampi was designated a site of national importance in 1976 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

In the early 1980s, a major project was initiated to meticulously document Vijayanagara's material remains using intensive surveys and various recording techniques. Scholars from around the world worked for nearly two decades on this project.

Mapping the site was a crucial part of this effort. The area was divided into a grid of 25 large squares (A-Y), each subdivided into smaller squares, and then further subdivided into even smaller units (Fig. 7.27, 7.28, 7.29 show detailed maps). This painstaking process allowed for the detailed documentation of thousands of structures, from tiny shrines to large temples, as well as roads, paths, and bazaars (located by remaining pillar bases and platforms).

Historians working on the site, like John M. Fritz and George Michell, emphasize the need to imagine the vanished wooden structures (columns, beams, ceilings, eaves, towers), which were likely decorated and painted, based on surviving stone foundations and traveller descriptions. These descriptions, despite the loss of wooden elements, help reconstruct aspects of the vibrant life of the city.

Domingo Paes provides vivid descriptions of the bazaars, noting their broad, beautiful streets lined with shops selling a vast array of goods, including precious stones, textiles, and everyday necessities. He describes daily fairs selling horses, produce, and wood. Both Paes and Fernao Nuniz commented on the abundance and affordability of provisions like grains, fruits, and meat in the markets, depicting Vijayanagara as a well-supplied and prosperous city (Source 5 provides excerpts from their accounts).

Answer:

Questions In Search Of Answers

The surviving buildings provide valuable information about how spaces were organised, construction techniques, materials, and defence strategies. They reflect cultural influences and the ideas patrons wished to project. However, material remains alone cannot answer all historical questions.

Many questions about the lives and perspectives of ordinary people remain unanswered:

• What did they think of the grand buildings?
• Did they have access to the royal or sacred centres?
• How did they view and understand the complex symbolism in sculptures?
• What were the experiences and thoughts of the labourers who built these colossal structures?

Furthermore, questions about the logistics and organisation of construction are not fully answered by the buildings themselves: Who possessed the specialised knowledge for designing and planning? Where did the skilled labour (masons, stonecutters, sculptors) come from, and how were they compensated? How were materials transported? Continued research using other sources is needed to shed light on these aspects.

Krishnadeva Raya

The statue of Krishnadeva Raya on the gopuram of the Chidambaram temple (Fig. 7.31) is a form of self-representation, showing how the ruler wanted to be perceived. This can be contrasted with traveller descriptions, such as Paes's physical description of him (medium height, fair complexion, stout, with smallpox marks), highlighting different perspectives and the challenges of historical interpretation based on varied sources.