Chapter 6 The Beginnings Of Indian Civilisation

What Is A Civilisation?

Following the early human settlements and the development of agriculture and technologies like metallurgy and transport, human societies progressed towards what is termed a civilisation. Generally, this term describes an advanced stage of human societal development.

A 'civilisation', in this context, possesses specific key characteristics:

• A structured government and administration to manage the increasing complexity of society and its various activities.
• Urbanism, involving planned towns and the growth of cities, including systems for managing water and drainage.
• A variety of crafts, requiring the management of raw materials (like stone or metal) and the skilled production of finished goods (such as tools and ornaments).
• Active trade, both within a specific region or city (internal) and with distant regions or other civilisations (external), for exchanging goods.
• A system of writing, essential for keeping records, administration, and communication.
• Developed cultural ideas about life and the world, expressed through various forms like art, architecture, literature, oral traditions, and social customs.
• A highly productive agriculture, capable of generating enough food not only for villages but also to sustain the populations of cities.

While these features are common in societies today, the development of civilisation occurred at different times globally. For instance, civilisation began in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and Syria) about 6,000 years ago, followed by ancient Egypt shortly after. These early civilisations made significant contributions to human advancement.

In the Indian Subcontinent, the earliest civilisation emerged in the northwest region.

Metallurgy refers to the techniques used to extract metals from nature, purify or combine them, and also the scientific study of metals and their properties.

From Village To City

The earliest civilisation in the Indian Subcontinent developed in the fertile plains watered by the Indus River and its tributaries (rivers flowing into a larger river) in the regions now known as Punjab (in both India and Pakistan) and Sindh (in Pakistan).

Further east, another major river, the Sarasvatī, flowed from the Himalayan foothills through areas that are now Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat several thousand years ago.

In this extensive region, starting around 3500 BCE, human settlements transitioned from small villages to larger towns. With increasing trade and interaction, these towns grew into fully-fledged cities around 2600 BCE.

This advanced stage of development is known by several names: the Indus, Harappan, Indus-Sarasvatī, or Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation. Its inhabitants are referred to as Harappans. This civilisation is recognized as one of the world's oldest.

The term 'Harappan' is used because the city of Harappa, located in what is now Pakistan's Punjab, was the first site of this civilisation to be excavated, which took place in 1920-21. This period of urban growth is also called the 'First Urbanisation of India'.

Important cities of this civilisation, based on archaeological findings, include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (both in Pakistan), Dholavira (Gujarat, India), Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India), Ganweriwala (Cholistan desert, Pakistan), and Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India). Hundreds of smaller sites, like Lothal (Gujarat, India), have also been discovered and some excavated.

Let's match some of the Harappan cities to their modern regions/states:

The Sarasvatī River

The Sarasvatī River played a significant role in the location and development of the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation. Historical evidence indicates it flowed from the Himalayas, traversing through regions now part of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

Today, this river is primarily seasonal and is known as the Ghaggar in India and the Hakra in Pakistan (collectively the Ghaggar-Hakra River).

The Sarasvatī is mentioned in the ancient Rig Veda, where it is revered as both a goddess and a powerful river flowing from the mountains to the sea. Later texts describe its gradual drying up and eventual disappearance.

Archaeological discoveries have revealed a high concentration of Indus-Sarasvatī sites located along the course of the ancient Sarasvatī river basin, including major cities like Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala, smaller cities like Kalibangan and Farmana, and towns like Bhirrana and Banawali. This high density of settlements underscores the river's importance to the civilisation.

Town-Planning

The larger cities of the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation were remarkably well-planned and systematically constructed. Archaeological excavations in cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (discovered first in 1924), Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi reveal advanced urban planning.

Key features of their town planning include:

• Precise Layouts: Cities were built according to strict plans, often with streets oriented along cardinal directions (North-South and East-West).
• Wide Streets: Streets were often wide and straight, intersecting at right angles.
• Fortifications: Most cities were surrounded by walls or fortifications, likely for protective purposes.
• City Divisions: Many cities had two main sections: an 'upper town' (sometimes called a citadel) situated on a raised mound, thought to be the area where the ruling or administrative elite lived, and a larger 'lower town' where the majority of the population resided. Some cities, like Dholavira, had a unique three-part division.
• Buildings: Large buildings with possible collective uses, such as warehouses for storing goods (evidence of trade). Individual houses of varying sizes lined the streets and smaller lanes. A notable aspect was the consistent quality of construction across different sizes of houses.
• Construction Materials: Buildings were generally constructed using baked bricks. In some cities like Dholavira, stone was also used, particularly for the foundations of buildings.

Some structures, like the famous 'Great Bath' at Mohenjo-daro, remain objects of archaeological interpretation. This elaborate tank, measuring approximately 12 x 7 metres, was built with carefully laid bricks and waterproofed using natural bitumen. It had steps leading down, surrounding rooms, a well as a water source, and a drain for emptying and refilling it.

While its exact purpose is debated (possible public bath, royal bath, or ritual tank), the prevalence of individual bathrooms in most houses in Mohenjo-daro makes the idea of it being a general public bath less likely.

Water Management

The Harappan civilisation placed a high priority on water management and sanitation, which is evident in their urban infrastructure.

• Private Bathrooms: Many houses had dedicated areas for bathing, often with sloped floors directing water towards drains.
• Drainage System: These private bathing areas were connected to a sophisticated network of covered drains that ran beneath the streets. These drains collected wastewater from individual homes and carried it away from the city.
• Water Sources: Cities accessed water from various sources. Mohenjo-daro had hundreds of wells constructed with bricks (around 700 counted). Other settlements may have used ponds, streams, or constructed reservoirs.
• Reservoirs: The city of Dholavira in Gujarat demonstrates advanced water harvesting with large reservoirs built from stone or cut into the rock (at least six identified). The largest found measures an impressive 73 metres in length. These reservoirs were interconnected by underground drains, facilitating efficient water storage and distribution.

The construction and maintenance of such elaborate water systems suggest a high level of organization and possibly some form of municipal authority responsible for civic infrastructure and public health.

What Did The Harappans Eat?

The location of Harappan settlements along river banks provided access to fertile land, supporting a productive agricultural base that was essential for feeding the urban population.

Archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappans cultivated a diverse range of crops:

• Cereals and Grains: They grew barley, wheat, several types of millets, and occasionally rice.
• Pulses and Vegetables: Beans, peas, lentils (dal), and various vegetables were part of their diet.
• Cotton: The Harappans were among the first in Eurasia to cultivate cotton, which they used for weaving clothes.

They developed and used farming tools, including the plough, evidenced by small clay models found at sites like Banawali.

The larger cities depended on the agricultural output from hundreds of smaller rural settlements that managed intensive farming activities.

In addition to farming, the Harappans also engaged in animal domestication for meat and practised fishing in both rivers and the sea, confirmed by the discovery of numerous animal and fish bones during excavations.

Scientific analysis of food residues found in clay pots has revealed details about their diet, including dairy products, and surprisingly, traces of spices like turmeric and ginger, along with banana, indicating a varied diet.

A Brisk Trade

The Harappan civilisation was characterized by extensive and active trade. This trade took place both internally, between different cities and regions within the civilisation, and externally, with distant lands and other contemporary civilisations.

The Harappans exported various goods, including:

• Ornaments: Especially beads made from carnelian (a reddish semi-precious stone found in Gujarat). Harappan craftspeople were skilled in drilling tiny holes in these beads and decorating them.
• Shell Objects: Including beautiful bangles crafted from conch shells, demonstrating advanced techniques required for working with this hard material.
• Timber, objects of daily use (like ivory combs).
• Likely precious materials like gold and cotton.
• Possibly some food items.

The exact nature of their imports is less clear but likely included metals such as copper, which may not have been readily available in all parts of the Harappan region.

The Harappans had expertise in metallurgy, mastering the working of copper. They also produced bronze, a harder alloy created by adding tin to copper, which they used for tools, utensils, and figurines.

Trade was conducted using various routes: over land, via rivers, and significantly, by sea. This period marks the first known intensive maritime activity in India. Many Harappan settlements, particularly in Gujarat and Sindh, are located in coastal areas, highlighting the importance of sea trade.

A notable example is the settlement of Lothal in Gujarat, which had a massive basin (217 metres long and 36 metres wide). This structure is interpreted as a dockyard, designed to accommodate boats for loading and unloading goods, indicating organized maritime trade.

To manage trade, particularly the identification of goods and traders, the Harappans used small objects called seals. Thousands of these seals have been excavated from various sites. Typically made of heated steatite (a soft stone), these small seals (only a few centimetres in size) often feature animal figures (such as a unicorn, bull, or horned tiger) and a few signs from the Harappan writing system.

Although the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered, and the symbolic meaning of the animal figures is not fully understood, the seals are believed to be directly related to their trade activities and possibly administration.

The Lives Of The Ancients

Archaeological findings provide glimpses into the daily lives, beliefs, and artistic expressions of the Harappan people through the objects they made and used.

Artifacts recovered from excavations include:

• Objects of Daily Use: Bronze mirrors, terracotta pots, carefully calibrated stone weights (indicating a system of measurement for trade), bronze chisels, and various tools.
• Games and Toys: Including engraved gamesboards and terracotta whistles, suggesting that games and entertainment were part of their lives for both children and adults.
• Cultural and Symbolic Objects: Statuettes (like the 'Priest King' figure, whose actual identity is unknown), seals with symbols like the swastika or depictions of deities (e.g., a three-faced figure seated on a platform surrounded by animals), and figurines representing human forms or gestures (like a terracotta figurine seated in a 'namaste' pose).
• The famous 'Dancing Girl' is a small bronze figurine found in Mohenjo-daro, notable for its posture and the numerous bangles covering one arm, a practice that is still seen in some parts of India, particularly in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Designs on pottery can sometimes depict scenes or stories, such as a design from Lothal that seems to illustrate the fable of the thirsty crow, indicating the presence of shared narratives or folklore.

These diverse objects reveal that the Harappans were skilled craftspeople with developed technologies, engaged in trade, enjoyed games, and likely had complex cultural practices and beliefs.

The End Or A New Beginning?

Around 1900 BCE, after flourishing for centuries, the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation began to decline. The carefully planned cities were gradually abandoned. While some inhabitants may have remained, the sophisticated urban lifestyle and presumably the organized government or administration seem to have disappeared, leading to a return to more rural ways of life in smaller settlements.

The reasons for this decline have been the subject of extensive archaeological research and debate.

• Earlier theories suggesting destruction by warfare or invasion have been largely dismissed, as archaeological evidence does not support large-scale conflict or the presence of an army or significant weapons. The civilisation appears to have been relatively peaceful.

Two main factors are widely accepted as contributing to the decline:

• Climatic Change: A significant change in climate, starting around 2200 BCE, led to reduced rainfall and a drier period across large parts of the world, including the Harappan region. This would have made agriculture more difficult and potentially reduced the food surplus needed to sustain urban populations.
• Sarasvatī River Drying Up: The Sarasvatī River, along which many important Harappan cities and settlements were located, began to dry up, particularly in its central basin. The loss of this vital water source directly led to the abandonment of cities and settlements reliant on it, such as Kalibangan and Banawali.

These factors highlight the deep dependence of the civilisation on the prevailing climate and environment for its sustenance.

Although the urban centres of the Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation faded, many aspects of its culture, technology, and agricultural practices survived. These elements were carried forward by the scattered populations and influenced the subsequent phases of civilisation in the Indian Subcontinent, representing a transition rather than a complete end.