Chapter 1 The French Revolution

French Society During The Late Eighteenth Century

In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family became the king of France at the age of 20, marrying Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. Upon his ascension, the royal treasury was empty due to prolonged wars, the cost of maintaining the lavish court at Versailles, and France's support for the American colonies against Britain. This support added over a billion livres to an already significant debt, leading lenders to charge 10% interest. The state needed to increase taxes to cover regular expenses like the army, court, government offices, and universities.

French society in the 18th century, under the system known as the Old Regime (before 1789), was structured into three estates. Only members of the Third Estate were obligated to pay taxes.

The Struggle To Survive

Between 1715 and 1789, France's population grew significantly, leading to a sharp rise in the demand for foodgrains. However, grain production could not keep pace with this demand. Consequently, the price of bread, the main food for most people, increased rapidly.

Wages for labourers, who constituted the majority of the working population, were fixed by their employers and did not increase as quickly as prices. This resulted in a widening gap between the rich and the poor.

Harvests were often negatively impacted by droughts or hail, which worsened the situation considerably.

How A Subsistence Crisis Happens

The conditions described often led to a subsistence crisis, which is an extreme situation where the basic means of living are threatened. This was a frequent occurrence in France during the Old Regime.

The typical chain of events leading to a subsistence crisis is as follows:

• A bad harvest occurs.
• This leads to a scarcity of grain.
• Grain scarcity results in rising food prices, particularly the price of bread.
• The poorest sections of society can no longer afford to buy bread.
• This weakens bodies and makes them more susceptible to disease, leading to an increased number of deaths.
• In severe cases, lack of food and rising prices can trigger food riots.

*(The image depicts the interconnected factors contributing to the crisis)*

A Growing Middle Class Envisages An End To Privileges

Although peasants and workers had previously revolted against taxes and food shortages, they lacked the necessary resources and organised plans to bring about large-scale social or economic change.

In the 18th century, a new social group emerged within the Third Estate, known as the middle class. They gained wealth through expanding overseas trade and manufacturing (like textiles), and included merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and administrative officials. This group was educated and held beliefs contrary to the existing social order.

The middle class believed that no group should be privileged by birth. Instead, a person's social standing should be based on their merit or abilities. They envisioned a society founded on principles of freedom, equal laws, and opportunities for everyone.

These ideas were influenced by Enlightenment philosophers:

• John Locke: In his *Two Treatises of Government*, he challenged the divine and absolute right of monarchs.
• Jean Jacques Rousseau: He proposed a government model based on a social contract between the people and their elected representatives.
• Montesquieu: In *The Spirit of the Laws*, he advocated for a separation of powers within the government into the legislature, executive, and judiciary.

This separation of powers model was implemented in the USA after its independence from Britain and served as an important example for French political thinkers.

The ideas of these philosophers were widely discussed in salons and coffee-houses and disseminated through books and newspapers. Public readings made these concepts accessible even to those who were illiterate.

The news of Louis XVI's plan to impose further taxes ignited widespread anger and protest, particularly targeting the system of privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility.

The Outbreak Of The Revolution

To impose new taxes, the king did not have unilateral power; he had to convene a meeting of the Estates General, a political assembly where the three estates sent representatives. The monarch decided when this assembly would meet, with the last convocation having been in 1614.

On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General at Versailles to approve new tax proposals.

• The First and Second Estates sent 300 representatives each, seated facing each other.
• The Third Estate sent 600 representatives, who had to stand at the back.
• The Third Estate representatives were mostly prosperous and educated members; peasants, artisans, and women were excluded from the assembly but their grievances were listed in thousands of letters brought by the representatives.

Historically, voting in the Estates General was based on the principle of one estate, one vote. Louis XVI intended to follow this practice. However, the Third Estate representatives demanded that voting should instead be conducted by the assembly as a whole, with each member having one vote. This demand aligned with democratic principles proposed by philosophers like Rousseau in *The Social Contract*.

When the king rejected this proposal, the representatives of the Third Estate walked out of the assembly in protest.

Seeing themselves as the representatives of the entire French nation, the Third Estate delegates assembled on 20 June in the hall of an indoor tennis court in Versailles. They took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disperse until they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the monarch's powers. This body declared itself the National Assembly.

The leaders of the National Assembly included:

• Mirabeau: Born a noble but supported the abolition of feudal privileges. He published a journal and gave influential speeches.
• Abbé Sieyès: Originally a priest, he wrote a significant pamphlet titled 'What is the Third Estate?'.

While the National Assembly worked on the constitution in Versailles, the rest of France experienced great unrest. A harsh winter had caused a bad harvest, leading to soaring bread prices. Bakers were often accused of hoarding supplies. Angry crowds, particularly women, stormed bakeries.

Simultaneously, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. This further agitated the population, leading to the storming and destruction of the Bastille fortress-prison on 14 July 1789. The Bastille was despised as a symbol of the king's absolute power.

In the countryside, rumours spread that nobles ("lords of the manor") had hired thugs ("brigands") to destroy ripe crops. This fear triggered the "Great Fear" (Grande Peur), causing peasants in many areas to seize tools and attack chateaux (castles or stately residences). They plundered stored grain and burned documents recording manorial dues (feudal obligations owed to lords).

Facing widespread revolts, Louis XVI finally recognised the National Assembly and accepted that his powers would be limited by a constitution.

On the night of 4 August 1789, the National Assembly passed a decree that effectively dismantled the feudal system:

• It abolished the feudal system of obligations and taxes.
• Members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges.
• Tithes (a tax levied by the church, one-tenth of agricultural produce) were abolished.
• Church lands were confiscated by the government, generating significant assets ($\textsf{₹}$ worth at least 2 billion livres).

France Becomes A Constitutional Monarchy

The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. The primary goal was to limit the powers of the monarch. Instead of concentrating power in one person, the constitution separated powers and assigned them to distinct institutions: the legislature, executive, and judiciary. This established France as a Constitutional Monarchy.

The Constitution of 1791 granted the power to make laws to the National Assembly. This assembly was elected indirectly. Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly members.

However, voting rights were not universal:

• Only men aged 25 and above who paid taxes equivalent to at least 3 days of a labourer's wage were classified as active citizens and had the right to vote (approximately 4 million out of 28 million population).
• The remaining men, along with all women, were considered passive citizens and had no voting rights.
• To become an elector or a member of the Assembly, a man had to be in the highest tax-paying bracket.

The constitution began with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

This declaration established fundamental rights as 'natural and inalienable', meaning they were inherent to every human being from birth and could not be taken away. It placed the responsibility on the state to protect these rights. Key rights included:

• Right to life.
• Freedom of speech and opinion.
• Equality before the law.
• Liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression (aim of political association).
• Sovereignty resides in the nation, not individuals or groups.
• Liberty is the power to do anything not harmful to others.
• Law can only forbid actions harmful to society.
• All citizens have the right to participate in the formation of law, directly or via representatives, and are equal before the law.
• Protection against arbitrary accusation, arrest, or detention.
• Freedom to speak, write, and print (with responsibility for abuse).
• A common tax is necessary for public force/administration, assessed equally based on means.
• Property is sacred and inviolable, not to be deprived unless legally required for public necessity with just compensation.

These rights, however, primarily applied to men and were contingent on active citizenship, disappointing many, including women and the poorer sections.

Symbolism in the Declaration of Rights painting (Fig. 8) and political symbols were important for communication in a largely illiterate society:

• Snake biting its tail (ring): Eternity.
• Sceptre: Royal power (contextually, the overthrow/limitation of it).
• Eye within a triangle radiating light: Knowledge, driving away ignorance.
• Bundle of rods (Fasces): Strength in unity.
• Broken chain: Becoming free, emancipation.
• Red Phrygian cap: Cap worn by a freed slave, symbolising liberty.
• Blue-white-red: National colours of France.
• Winged woman: Personification of the law.
• Law Tablet: Equality before the law.

France Abolishes Monarchy And Becomes A Republic

The political situation in France remained tense after 1791. Although Louis XVI accepted the Constitution, he engaged in secret negotiations with the King of Prussia and rulers of other neighbouring countries who were alarmed by the revolution and planning military intervention.

In April 1792, the National Assembly preempted this by voting to declare war against Prussia and Austria. This war was viewed by thousands of volunteers who joined the army from the provinces as a struggle of the people against European monarchs and aristocracies.

A notable patriotic song composed during this time was the Marseillaise by Roget de L'Isle. Sung by volunteers from Marseilles as they marched to Paris, it became the national anthem of France.

The revolutionary wars led to economic hardship and losses. With men away fighting, women had to shoulder the burden of earning and caring for families.

Many people felt the revolution needed to go further because the 1791 Constitution only gave political rights to the wealthy. Political clubs became important forums for discussing government policies and organising action. The most famous was the Jacobin club, named after the former convent of St Jacob in Paris.

The Jacobins primarily consisted of less prosperous people, including small shopkeepers, artisans (shoemakers, pastry cooks, etc.), servants, and daily wage workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.

To distinguish themselves from the aristocratic wearers of knee breeches (culottes), a large group of Jacobins adopted wearing long striped trousers, similar to dockworkers. They were called sans-culottes (meaning 'those without knee breeches'). Sans-culottes men also wore the red cap symbolising liberty, though women were not permitted to do so.

In the summer of 1792, angered by food shortages and high prices, the Jacobins organised an uprising of Parisians. On August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, killing the king's guards and holding the royal family hostage.

Subsequently, the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held, and this time, all men aged 21 and above, regardless of their wealth, were granted the right to vote.

The newly elected assembly was named the Convention. On 21 September 1792, the Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a Republic. A republic is a form of government where the head of state is elected by the people, not determined by heredity.

Louis XVI was tried by a court for treason and publicly executed on 21 January 1793 at the Place de la Concorde. Marie Antoinette met the same fate shortly after.

The Reign Of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror, led by Maximilian Robespierre's government.

Robespierre implemented a policy of severe control and punishment. Those deemed 'enemies' of the republic, including ex-nobles, clergy, members of other parties, and even Jacobins who disagreed with him, were arrested, imprisoned, and tried by a revolutionary tribunal.

If found 'guilty', individuals were executed by the guillotine, a device invented by Dr Guillotin consisting of two poles and a blade for beheading.

Robespierre's government imposed strict measures:

• Maximum limits were set on wages and prices.
• Meat and bread were rationed.
• Peasants were compelled to transport grain to cities and sell it at government-fixed prices.
• The use of expensive white flour was prohibited; all citizens were required to eat *pain d’égalité* ('equality bread') made of wholewheat.
• Equality was also promoted through forms of address; traditional 'Monsieur' (Sir) and 'Madame' (Madam) were replaced by 'Citoyen' (Citizen) and 'Citoyenne'.
• Churches were closed down and converted into barracks or offices.

Robespierre's extreme policies eventually alienated even his supporters. In July 1794, he was convicted by a court, arrested, and guillotined the next day, marking the end of the Reign of Terror.

A Directory Rules France

After the fall of the Jacobins, the wealthier middle classes gained power. A new constitution was introduced, which unfortunately denied voting rights to non-propertied sections of society.

This constitution established two elected legislative councils. These councils then appointed an executive body called the Directory, composed of five members. This structure was intended to prevent the concentration of power in a single person, unlike under Robespierre.

However, the Directors frequently clashed with the legislative councils, leading to political instability. This instability created a power vacuum that ultimately paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Despite the shifts in government structure, the core ideals of the revolution – freedom, equality before the law, and fraternity – remained influential, inspiring political movements in France and across Europe in the following century.

Did Women Have A Revolution?

From the beginning, women were active participants in the French Revolution, hoping their involvement would lead to improvements in their lives.

Most women of the Third Estate worked for a living, typically as seamstresses, laundresses, vendors (flowers, fruits, vegetables), or domestic servants for wealthier households. They generally lacked access to education or job training. Only daughters of nobles or rich Third Estate members could study, often in convents, before arranged marriages.

Working women also bore the sole responsibility for household tasks and childcare, such as cooking, fetching water, queuing for bread, and looking after children. Their wages were consistently lower than men's.

To discuss and advocate for their interests, women established their own political clubs and newspapers. Around sixty women's clubs appeared in French cities, with the Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women being the most famous.

A primary demand of these clubs was for women to have the same political rights as men. They were disappointed that the 1791 Constitution categorised them as passive citizens, denying them the right to vote, be elected to the Assembly, or hold political office. They believed equal representation was necessary to ensure their interests were considered by the government.

In the initial years, the revolutionary government did introduce some laws beneficial to women:

• Creation of state schools made schooling compulsory for all girls.
• Fathers could no longer force daughters into marriage.
• Marriage became a contract based on consent, registered under civil law.
• Divorce was legalised and accessible to both women and men.
• Women could now train for jobs, become artists, or run small businesses.

Despite these social improvements, the struggle for equal political rights continued. During the Reign of Terror, the Jacobin government ordered the closure of women's clubs and banned their political activities. Many prominent women activists were arrested and some executed.

The women's movements for voting rights and equal wages persisted globally for the next two centuries, notably through the international suffrage movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The example of French women's revolutionary activities served as an inspiration.

French women finally achieved the right to vote in 1946.

One significant revolutionary woman was Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793). She was a politically active woman who protested against the exclusion of women from the basic rights declared in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.

In 1791, she authored her own document, the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen, addressing it to the Queen and the National Assembly, demanding action on women's rights. She later criticised the Jacobin government for shutting down women's clubs and was tried by the National Convention for treason and executed in 1793.

Her declaration highlighted:

• Woman is born free and equal to man in rights.
• Political associations should preserve natural rights for both woman and man (liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression).
• Sovereignty comes from the nation, which is the union of woman and man.
• Law should be the expression of the general will, with participation from all female and male citizens (personally or by representatives); law should be the same for all, with equal access to honours/public employment based on ability/talent.
• Women are subject to the law like men and can be accused, arrested, and detained as determined by law.

The Abolition Of Slavery

A significant social reform by the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in French colonies.

French colonies in the Caribbean (Martinique, Guadeloupe, San Domingo) were vital suppliers of goods like tobacco, indigo, sugar, and coffee. Plantation labour was needed, but Europeans were reluctant to work there.

This led to a triangular slave trade involving Europe, Africa, and the Americas (the Caribbean). Starting in the 17th century, French merchants sailed to the African coast, bought slaves from local leaders, and transported them across the Atlantic to the Caribbean plantations.

Slaves were branded, shackled, and packed tightly onto ships for the arduous three-month voyage. They were then sold to plantation owners.

The exploitation of slave labour fueled the growing demand in European markets for colonial commodities, contributing to the economic prosperity of French port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes.

Throughout the 18th century, there was limited open criticism of slavery in France. The National Assembly debated whether to extend basic rights to colonial subjects but feared opposition from businessmen profiting from the slave trade, so they passed no laws on the matter.

Finally, the Convention in 1794 passed legislation to free all slaves in French overseas territories. However, this was a temporary measure.

Ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery. Plantation owners viewed their freedom as including the right to enslave people of African descent ("Negroes" - a term now considered offensive and no longer in common use) for economic gain.

Slavery was definitively and finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

*(The image shows a scene related to the 1794 emancipation, featuring symbols like the tricolour banner and hinting at the concept of 'civilising' freed slaves)*

The Revolution And Everyday Life

The years following 1789 in France saw significant changes affecting the daily lives of people, including their clothing, language, and access to information.

The revolutionary governments aimed to translate the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice through new laws.

One crucial law enacted soon after the storming of the Bastille in 1789 was the abolition of censorship.

Under the Old Regime, written materials (books, newspapers) and cultural activities (plays) required approval from royal censors before publication or performance. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression as a natural right.

This abolition led to a surge of newspapers, pamphlets, books, and printed images flooding into French towns and spreading quickly to the countryside. These publications discussed and documented the events and changes of the revolution.

Freedom of the press also allowed for the expression of opposing viewpoints, with different factions using print media to try and persuade others to their side.

Public events like plays, songs, and festive processions became popular ways for large numbers of people, including the illiterate, to understand and connect with abstract revolutionary ideas such as liberty and justice, which had previously been discussed in dense philosophical texts only accessible to the educated elite.

*(The image depicts abstract symbolism related to justice and societal change)*

*(The painting shows the revolutionary journalist Jean-Paul Marat addressing people, highlighting the public communication of ideas during the revolution)*

Conclusion: Legacy of the Revolution

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. He embarked on conquering parts of Europe, overthrowing dynasties, and establishing kingdoms for his family members. Napoleon saw himself as a moderniser, introducing laws like the protection of private property and a uniform decimal system of weights and measures.

Initially, many viewed Napoleon as a liberator bringing freedom, but his armies soon became seen as an invading force. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Nevertheless, many of the modern laws and revolutionary ideas of liberty that Napoleon spread across Europe continued to influence people long after his defeat.

The most significant legacy of the French Revolution was the ideas of liberty and democratic rights. These concepts spread from France to other parts of Europe in the 19th century, contributing to the abolition of feudal systems.

These ideas also inspired colonised peoples around the world to fight against bondage and work towards creating sovereign nation-states. Figures like Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy in India were influenced by the ideas emanating from revolutionary France.

*(The image depicts Napoleon's military endeavours)*