Chapter 1 Sociology And Society

I Introduction

Beginning with common advice given to young students, such as studying hard for success or choosing specific subjects for better job prospects, this section highlights how societal factors interplay with individual effort.

Initial advice often places the entire responsibility for success on the individual's hard work ("Study hard and you will do well").

However, subsequent advice reveals that other factors beyond individual effort are crucial. For instance, the job market influences job prospects, suggesting that external economic conditions matter.

Further advice introduces the idea that personal characteristics like gender and social background such as family/socioeconomic status also significantly impact life outcomes, complicating the simple notion that hard work alone guarantees success.

This demonstrates that individual outcomes are not solely determined by personal efforts but are shaped by various social factors.

These factors include the demands of the economy (the job market), which are themselves influenced by governmental economic and political policies, as well as the individual's family and social background.

This interplay between broader societal forces and individual lives suggests a fundamental relationship between the individual and society.

The personal decision of choosing subjects in school, while a source of individual concern, is also a broader public issue affecting many students collectively. One of sociology's tasks is to reveal the connection between such seemingly personal problems and wider public issues.

Furthermore, the concept of a "good job" is not universally defined but varies across societies and cultures. The social respect or worth attached to a particular job depends on the norms and values of the relevant society. Whether money, social recognition, or individual satisfaction defines a job's worth is culturally determined.

This chapter will explore several key aspects:

• The connection between personal problems and public issues, introducing the concept of the sociological imagination.
• How individuals in modern society belong to multiple social groups and how societies are marked by diversity and inequality.
• Sociology as a systematic discipline for studying society, distinct from philosophy, religion, and common sense.
• The historical and intellectual context in which sociology emerged, primarily in the West, and its global impact.
• The development and unique trajectory of sociology within India.
• The scope of sociology and its relationships with other social science disciplines.

Understanding the history of sociology helps in understanding the discipline itself.

Ii The Sociological Imagination: The Personal Problem And The Public Issue

Sociology has long been concerned with the dynamic link between the individual and society.

C. Wright Mills used the concept of the sociological imagination to highlight precisely this connection between personal troubles and public issues.

The sociological imagination allows us to understand the relationship between personal life (biography) and broader societal patterns (history) within their social context.

Mills distinguishes between:

• Personal Troubles of the Milieu: These occur within an individual's immediate social environment and relationships. They concern the individual's own character and limited areas of social life they are directly aware of (e.g., being unemployed in a small town due to personal difficulties).
• Public Issues of Social Structure: These transcend individual local environments and inner lives. They relate to the structures of society and affect large numbers of people (e.g., high unemployment rates across a nation due to economic policy changes).

Mills argues that individual success or failure is tied to contemporary historical conditions. Major societal transformations (industrialisation, class shifts, economic changes, wars) directly impact individual lives and opportunities.

Therefore, neither an individual's life story nor the history of a society can be understood in isolation; understanding one requires understanding the other.

Activity 1 in the text presents the example of homelessness. Applying the sociological imagination helps view homelessness not merely as a personal failure but as a public issue rooted in broader societal factors like economic conditions (employment possibilities), migration patterns (rural to urban), and lack of adequate housing policies.

Government schemes like the Indira Awas Yojana are examples of the state addressing homelessness as a public issue requiring collective action.

Iii Pluralities And Inequalities Among Societies

In today's interconnected world, individuals often belong to more than one "society" or social group simultaneously.

Depending on the context, "our society" might refer to the entire Indian nation, or a specific linguistic community, ethnic group, religious group, caste, tribe, or even a professional circle.

This inherent diversity makes defining and mapping "society" complex.

Beyond diversity, societies are also marked by significant inequalities.

Amartya Sen highlights various dimensions of inequality present in India:

• Economic inequality (rich vs. poor).
• Educational inequality (well-educated vs. illiterate).
• Differences in life conditions (luxury vs. hard toil).
• Inequality in political power and influence.
• Inequality in opportunities for advancement.
• Differential treatment by authority figures (e.g., police).

These different forms of inequality require serious attention and are central to sociological study.

Activity 2 encourages exploring indicators of social inequality beyond sanitation access, such as disparities in education, health, and employment.

Iv Introducing Sociology

Sociology is a systematic discipline dedicated to studying society as an interconnected whole.

The earlier discussion on individual choices and the job market illustrated how various institutions (economic, political, familial, cultural, educational) are linked and influence each other.

It also showed that individuals are both constrained by societal structures and have the capacity to influence them to some extent.

Sociology's subject matter is human social life, encompassing groups and entire societies, and specifically focusing on our behaviour as social beings.

While humans have always observed and reflected on the societies they live in (as seen in philosophical, religious, and legislative texts throughout history), sociology offers a distinct approach to studying society.

Sociology differentiates itself from:

• Philosophical and Religious Reflections: These often focus on what is ideal or desirable in human behaviour and society (norms and values as they *ought* to be). Sociology, while also concerned with norms and values, empirically studies how they actually *function* in real societies.
• Everyday Common Sense Observations: Our personal, unscientific observations and explanations about society, often based on individual experiences or taken-for-granted assumptions. Sociology employs systematic methods and rigorous analysis, questioning common sense understandings.

Sociology positions itself as a science. Unlike common sense or philosophical speculation, sociology adheres to scientific procedures and canons of evidence. This means sociological statements must be based on observations and data collected according to rules that allow others to verify or build upon the findings.

Although debates exist regarding quantitative vs. qualitative methods or comparisons with natural sciences, the core principle is that sociological observation and analysis must follow checkable rules.

Comparing sociological knowledge to common sense further clarifies the importance of method, procedure, and rules in the sociological approach.

V Sociology And Common Sense Knowledge

Sociological knowledge is distinct from theological, philosophical, and common sense observations.

Common sense explanations for social phenomena are often based on "naturalistic" or individualistic assumptions.

• A naturalistic explanation attributes behaviour or outcomes to inherent, seemingly "natural" reasons without considering social context.
• An individualistic explanation focuses solely on individual traits, choices, or failures as the cause of a social outcome.

For example, a common sense explanation for poverty might attribute it to individual laziness, lack of budgeting skills, or low intelligence ("People are poor because they are afraid of work...").

In contrast, a sociological explanation for poverty would examine structural factors like inequality, the labour market, chronic irregular work, and low wages ("Contemporary poverty is caused by the structure of inequality in class society...").

Activity 3 suggests contrasting naturalistic and sociological explanations for other social issues besides poverty.

Unsuspected Connections?

Sociology often reveals "unsuspected connections" between social actions or policies and their unintended consequences. Unlike common sense, which might accept outcomes at face value, sociology seeks deeper understanding.

An example given is the Indian government's decision to provide financial compensation to war widows. The *unintended consequence* in some patrilineal families was forced marriages between widows and their brother-in-laws, intended to keep the compensation within the deceased soldier's family. This highlights how a policy aimed at individual welfare can interact with existing social structures (patrilineal inheritance, family norms) to produce unforeseen and sometimes harmful outcomes.

This demonstrates how sociology, by examining the interplay of various social factors, can uncover complex realities often missed by common sense.

Sociology breaks away from both common sense and philosophical thought by being bound by scientific procedures.

It may not always yield dramatic discoveries, but it achieves meaningful insights by systematically sifting through complex relationships.

Unlike common sense, which is unreflective and doesn't question its own assumptions ("Why do I hold this view?"), sociology employs a systematic and questioning approach, inherited from the scientific tradition.

Sociologists must be willing to critically examine even cherished beliefs about society and individuals ("Is this really so?"). This rigorous approach, involving methods, procedures, and rules of evidence, differentiates sociological knowledge.

Vi The Intellectual Ideas That Went Into The Making Of Sociology

Sociology emerged during a period of significant intellectual and social change in Europe, primarily the 18th and 19th centuries. Several intellectual currents influenced its development:

• Scientific Revolution and Natural Evolution: Early sociology was influenced by scientific theories, including Darwin's ideas on organic evolution. Society was sometimes compared to living organisms, seen as progressing through evolutionary stages.
• Classification of Societies: Inspired by findings about pre-modern societies from travellers and colonial administrators, early sociologists like Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, and Herbert Spencer attempted to classify societies into types (e.g., hunters/gatherers, agrarian, industrial) and stages of development. This often reflected an ethnocentric view, assuming Western industrial society was the pinnacle of development, viewing non-Western societies as less advanced. This perspective is a significant part of the backdrop against which Indian sociology developed.
• Emphasis on Function: The view of society as a system with interconnected parts, each serving a function (influenced by organic analogies), shaped the study of social institutions like family and school, and structures like stratification.
• The Enlightenment (17th-18th centuries): This intellectual movement championed reason, individualism, and scientific advancement. There was a growing belief that scientific methods could be applied to study human affairs.
• Poverty as a Social Problem: The Enlightenment shift led to viewing social issues like poverty not as natural occurrences but as social problems caused by human factors (ignorance, exploitation) that could be studied and addressed.
• Social Survey: The belief that human phenomena could be classified and measured led to the development of tools like the social survey to study social problems empirically.

Early sociologists, such as Auguste Comte (considered the founder of sociology), believed the discipline could contribute to human welfare by providing scientific knowledge about society.

Vii The Material Issues That Went Into The Making Of Sociology

Alongside intellectual shifts, major material changes, particularly the Industrial Revolution in Europe (starting in England), profoundly shaped the emergence of sociology.

The Industrial Revolution was driven by capitalism, a new economic system based on sustained pursuit of profit, market exchange, and private ownership of the means of production. Goods, services, and labour became commodities.

This new industrial economy drastically differed from pre-industrial life, which was predominantly agrarian and village-based, with clearly defined hierarchies and close community interactions.

Key material transformations brought by industrialisation:

• Degradation of Labour: Work shifted from traditional contexts (guild, village, family) to factories. This led to the decline in status of skilled craftsmen and common labourers, viewed with concern by thinkers across the political spectrum.
• Urbanisation: Industrial cities grew rapidly, creating a new urban environment marked by factory pollution, overcrowded slums, poor sanitation, and difficult living conditions for the working class. These cities also facilitated new kinds of social interactions.
• Factory System and Division of Labour: The factory introduced mechanical division of labour, strict work routines, and a focus on efficiency. While some saw it as oppressive, others like Karl Marx also saw it as potentially liberating through fostering collective identity and action among workers.
• New Significance of Clock-Time: Work rhythms shifted from natural cycles (daylight) and task completion to strict adherence to clock and calendar time. Factory production demanded punctuality, a steady pace, and fixed working hours/days. Time became a commodity to be "spent."
• Impact on India: While industrialisation led to urban growth in India, it also caused de-industrialisation of traditional crafts due to the influx of cheaper British manufactured goods, pushing more people into agriculture, unlike the trend in Britain.

These profound social and economic changes created significant new problems and questions about society, providing the context and impetus for the development of sociology as a discipline to study these transformations.

Activity 4 highlights the rapid urbanisation in Britain due to industrialisation and contrasts it with the different impact in India, where more people shifted into agriculture.

Activity 5 suggests exploring how work is organised in different settings (traditional village, factory, call centre) to understand changing work patterns.

Activity 6 asks how industrial capitalism specifically changed Indian lives in villages and cities.

Viii Why Should We Study The Beginning And Growth Of Sociology In Europe?

While contemporary societies worldwide, including India, have unique features and challenges, understanding the origins of sociology in 18th and 19th century Europe is highly relevant.

Many core concerns of sociology, such as urbanisation and factory production, arose from the tumultuous changes brought by capitalism and industrialisation in Europe during that period. These issues remain pertinent globally, although their specific manifestations vary.

Studying European origins is relevant to India specifically because India's history is intricately linked to British capitalism and colonialism. Western capitalism's global expansion directly impacted India.

Accounts like R.K. Laxman's description of Mauritius illustrate the lasting impact of colonialism and global movement of people driven by capitalist needs (like indentured labour for plantations).

Therefore, understanding Western writings on capitalism and modern society provides a crucial backdrop for understanding social change in India, which experienced industrialisation and modernity under colonial rule.

Ix The Growth Of Sociology In India

Colonialism was an integral part of modern capitalism and industrialisation. This is why Western sociological ideas about capitalism and modernity are relevant for understanding social change in India.

However, the impact of industrialisation under colonialism in India differed from the West. As Karl Marx noted, British industrialisation led to the decline of Indian textile production, turning India from a manufacturing hub into a market for British goods and pushing Indian artisans back into agriculture.

Sociology in India also had to engage with existing Western perspectives on Indian society, which were often shaped by colonial biases and misconceptions.

Many Western accounts portrayed Indian society as a static contrast to the dynamic West, viewing aspects like the Indian village as unchanging remnants of a primitive past ("the infancy of society").

The colonial legacy also influenced the distinction between sociology and social anthropology in the West, where sociology studied modern industrial societies and social anthropology studied "simple" non-Western societies (often seen as exotic or primitive).

In India, this distinction is less rigid due to the country's vast diversity and the nature of its social realities.

As M.N. Srinivas pointed out, India itself contains a myriad of diverse groups and contexts ("many 'others' literally next door") across regions, languages, religions, castes, and rural/urban areas.

Indian social anthropology, therefore, expanded from studying 'primitive people' to examining peasants, ethnic groups, social classes, and aspects of both ancient civilizations and modern industrial society. This broader scope reflects the complex mix of tradition and modernity in India, leading to a less clear-cut disciplinary boundary compared to many Western countries.

X The Scope Of Sociology And Its Relationship To Other Social Science Disciplines

The scope of sociology is extensive, covering human interactions at various scales.

It can study face-to-face interactions between individuals (e.g., shopkeeper-customer, teacher-student) (Microsociology).

It can also examine large-scale social groups, organisations, or systems (Macrosociology), focusing on national issues (unemployment, caste conflict, state policies) or global processes (impact of flexible labour, electronic media, foreign universities).

What defines sociology is not just its subject matter, but its unique method or approach to studying social phenomena.

Sociology is part of the social sciences, alongside disciplines like anthropology, economics, political science, and history. While there are overlaps in interests, concepts, and methods, disciplinary boundaries are not always sharp and can be somewhat arbitrary. Interdisciplinary approaches are increasingly important, as highlighted by areas like feminist theories that intersect across disciplines.

Sociology And Economics

Economics focuses on the production and distribution of goods and services, traditionally dealing with variables like price, demand, and supply, and the allocation of scarce resources.

Its dominant trend has been to formulate precise laws of economic behaviour.

Sociology approaches economic behaviour within a broader context, considering social norms, values, cultural practices, and interests that influence economic activities.

For instance, sociological insights help understand consumer behaviour beyond simple supply-demand models, considering how advertising shapes lifestyles (Activity 7 encourages thinking about this).

Trends like feminist economics also broaden the scope by examining how social structures like gender roles impact the economy, including unpaid work within the home.

While economics is often lauded for its precision and direct policy implications, its predictive ability can suffer from neglecting social and cultural factors that sociology studies. Sociology, while less focused on providing technical solutions, offers a critical perspective that questions not just the means but also the desirability of economic goals themselves.

Activity 7 asks questions about the influence of advertisements on consumption, whether 'good life' is solely economic, and if saving/spending habits are culturally formed, prompting a sociological lens on economic behaviour.

Sociology And Political Science

Conventional political science focused on political theory and government administration, often dealing with formal structures and ideas rather than actual political behaviour.

Sociology studies all aspects of society, while political science traditionally focused on power within formal organisations (government).

Sociology emphasises the interconnectedness of institutions, while political science focuses on processes within government.

However, sociology and political science share interests, leading to areas like political sociology, which studies actual political behaviour (e.g., voting patterns, political participation, decision-making in organisations, the sociology of political support, gender roles in politics). Activity 8 suggests observing studies of recent elections to see this interaction.

Sociology And History

Traditionally, historians studied the past (often kings, wars, and major events) to establish what happened, while sociologists focused on the contemporary or recent past to establish causal relationships.

History studied concrete details; sociology abstracted, categorised, and generalised.

Today, history is increasingly sociological, with social history examining social patterns, gender relations, customs, and institutions beyond ruling elites. Historians now employ sociological methods and concepts in their analyses. Activity 9 suggests exploring how historians have written about non-traditional topics like the history of art, sports, clothes, or architecture.

Sociology And Psychology

Psychology is defined as the science of behaviour, primarily focusing on the individual (intelligence, motivation, memory, etc.).

Social psychology bridges the two, focusing on individual behaviour within social groups and collective interactions, but still maintaining a primary interest in the individual.

Sociology studies behaviour as it is organised within society, examining how social structures (economic, political, family, culture, norms) shape personality and individual behaviour.

Early sociologists like Durkheim, in his study of suicide, deliberately excluded individual psychological factors (intentions) in favour of social characteristics and statistics, highlighting the sociological focus on societal patterns.

Sociology And Social Anthropology

In the West, social anthropology historically studied "simple societies" (often non-European, non-industrialised) in all their aspects as wholes, using methods like long-term fieldwork and ethnography (living with the community studied). Sociology studied "modern, complex societies" focusing on specific parts (bureaucracy, religion).

This distinction reflected a colonial context where Western anthropologists studied "other" cultures, often implicitly comparing them to the Western model.

In India, this division is less pronounced. Indian sociologists and social anthropologists have studied both complex urban modern India and tribal or rural communities. The very complexity and diversity of India mean that distinctions between "simple" and "complex" societies are blurred (e.g., villages within cities, global call centres in provincial towns).

Indian sociology has borrowed methods from both traditions (quantitative surveys and qualitative ethnography). The assumption of studying "bounded" simple societies is challenged by contemporary global processes (like colonialism, globalisation) that impact even the most remote areas.

Fruitful exchanges exist between the disciplines today, with anthropology studying modern topics (state, globalisation) and sociology using diverse methods to study complex societies.

In India, sociology and social anthropology remain closely related, reflecting the intertwined nature of tradition and modernity across the country.

Activity 10 suggests exploring the history of migration related to tea cultivation in Assam to understand the historical interplay of global capitalism, colonialism, and population movements studied by both disciplines.