Ancient Indian Sources

How Historians Study The Rigveda

The Rigveda is one of the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism and one of the earliest known literary compositions in the world. It is a collection of hymns in praise of various deities. For historians, the Rigveda is a valuable literary source for understanding the early Vedic period in India, providing insights into the life, society, and beliefs of the people who composed it.

The Rigveda was composed in Old Sanskrit, likely in the region of the Indus and its tributaries, around 3500 years ago. It was transmitted orally for centuries before being written down much later.

Studying the Rigveda as a Historical Source:

• Language: Historians study the language of the Rigveda. The Sanskrit used in the Rigveda is an older form (Vedic Sanskrit), different from the later classical Sanskrit. By comparing it with other Indo-European languages, historians can trace linguistic connections and migrations.
• Content: Historians analyse the themes and subjects of the hymns. The hymns describe various aspects of Vedic society:
  • Deities: Praises of gods and goddesses like Agni (fire), Indra (warrior god), Soma (a plant/drink). The importance given to different deities can reflect aspects of their life and environment.
  • Social life: References to tribes (janas), conflicts (battles), cattle rearing (cattle were very important wealth).
  • Economy: Importance of agriculture, pastoralism (cattle, sheep, goats), mention of rivers.
  • Geography: Mentions of rivers (Sapt Sindhu region - land of seven rivers), mountains.
• Comparison with other sources: Historians compare the information from the Rigveda with archaeological evidence from the same period and region (if available) to corroborate or contrast findings.

For example, descriptions of battles or social groups in the Rigveda can be compared with archaeological findings of settlements or tools from that era. However, direct archaeological evidence strongly linked to the Rigvedic period is still debated.

Interpreting the Rigveda as a historical source requires careful consideration, as it is primarily a religious text, and not a historical chronicle. However, within its religious context, it provides invaluable clues about the early Vedic people's world view, social organisation, and economic activities.

Silent Sentinels—The Story Of The Megaliths

Megaliths are large stone structures built by people in the past. The word 'megalith' comes from Greek words 'mega' (large) and 'lithos' (stone). These structures are found in various parts of the world, including the Deccan, South India, North-east India, and Kashmir.

In India, megaliths are often associated with burial sites. The practice of building megaliths began about 3000 years ago and was prevalent for many centuries.

What Megaliths Tell Us:

• Burial practices: Megaliths mark burial spots. Sometimes, multiple burials are found at the same site, possibly indicating family burials. This suggests that families used the same burial site over generations.
• Life after death beliefs: Grave goods found buried with the dead suggest beliefs in an afterlife.
• Social organisation: The presence of certain types of goods in some burials but not others, and the effort required to move large stones, suggests social differences and organisation within the community.
• Iron Age: Many megalithic burials from South India contain iron tools and weapons (axes, swords, sickles, knives). This indicates that these people were familiar with iron technology. Skeletons, pottery, and ornaments (gold, stone beads) are also commonly found.
• Technology: The construction of megaliths, involving the quarrying, transporting, and erecting of large stones, indicates a level of technological skill and cooperative effort.
• Economy: Iron tools point towards activities like agriculture (sickles, axes for clearing forest) and possibly warfare (weapons). Ornaments suggest availability of resources for personal adornment.

*(Image shows a megalithic site with large stones, possibly arranged around or over a burial area)*

Megaliths are 'silent sentinels' because they don't have written records associated with them. Historians and archaeologists piece together the story of the people who built them by carefully excavating and studying the remains found within and around these stone structures.

Answer:

Discovering The Harappan Civilisation

The Harappan Civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was one of the earliest urban civilisations in the world. Its existence was unknown for centuries until archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries revealed its remarkable urban centres and sophisticated culture.

The civilisation flourished around 4700 years ago in the Indus River valley and its tributaries, covering parts of modern-day India and Pakistan. Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi.

Cunningham’s Confusion

• Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), excavated the site of Harappa in the mid-19th century (around the 1870s).
• He found some strange artifacts from the site, including a seal with an unknown script.
• However, Cunningham was unable to recognise the significance of these artifacts or the antiquity of the site. He thought they belonged to the historical period (around the 1st millennium CE or earlier historical dynasties) and related them to historical records from that time.
• He was primarily interested in finding sites mentioned by Chinese pilgrims who visited India, and Harappa did not fit into that framework. He missed the fact that Harappa was much older than the historical sites he was looking for.
• Cunningham's confusion illustrates that recognising and interpreting archaeological evidence depends on existing knowledge and frameworks. He could not fit the Harappan finds into his understanding of Indian history at that time.

A New Old Civilisation

• In the early 20th century, further excavations were conducted at Harappa by archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni (in 1921).
• At the same time, excavations at Mohenjo-daro were being conducted by R.D. Banerji.
• They found similar seals and artifacts at both sites.
• In 1924, John Marshall, the Director-General of ASI, announced to the world the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus Valley, much older than the known historical periods of India, and even older than or contemporary with the ancient civilisations of Mesopotamia.
• This discovery pushed back the known history of India by thousands of years.

New Techniques And Questions

• The discovery of the Harappan Civilisation marked a significant shift in archaeological methods. Marshall, and later archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler, used more systematic excavation techniques (e.g., excavating in clear horizontal layers) to understand the chronology and structure of the sites.
• New questions arose about this civilisation: Who were the people? What was their social and political organisation? What was their economy like? What were their religious beliefs? What caused its decline?

The discovery of the Harappan Civilisation was a major breakthrough in understanding ancient India and highlighted the importance of archaeology as a source of history, particularly for periods without deciphered written records.

Problems Of Piecing Together The Past (Harappan)

While archaeological discoveries at Harappan sites provide a wealth of information, interpreting them to reconstruct the past of this ancient civilisation is challenging. The primary difficulty arises because the Harappan script remains undeciphered.

Challenges in Interpreting Harappan Civilisation:

• Unlike ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia, where written records have been deciphered, allowing direct insight into their history, administration, beliefs, and daily life, the Harappan script found on seals and other objects is not yet understood. This means we cannot read their own accounts.
• Therefore, our understanding of the Harappan civilisation is primarily based on archaeological evidence – the material remains found at the sites.

Classifying Finds

Archaeologists recover a vast number of objects from excavation sites. Classifying these finds is the first step in interpretation.

• Finds are classified based on various criteria:
  • Material: Stone, clay, metal (copper, bronze), bone, ivory, fainaence, etc.
  • Form/Shape: What is the object's shape? Is it a tool, a pot, a bead, a seal, a figurine?
  • Function: What was the object likely used for? (This is often inferred from material, shape, and where it was found). For example, sharp objects might be tools, pots might be for storage or cooking.
• Context is important: Where was the object found? In a house, in a workshop, in a drain, in a burial? The location can provide clues about its use.

Classifying similar objects from different sites helps archaeologists identify patterns and understand the characteristics of the civilisation across its vast area.

Problems Of Interpretation

Interpreting the function and meaning of archaeological finds from a non-literate (or undeciphered script) society is difficult and often involves making inferences and educated guesses.

• Interpreting Utilitarian Objects: Objects like pots, tools, and ornaments are relatively easier to interpret based on their form and comparison with similar objects from other cultures or later periods.
• Interpreting Religious/Cultural Objects: Objects related to beliefs and rituals are much harder to interpret definitively without written records explaining their significance.
  • Example: Figurines found in large numbers (e.g., terracotta female figurines). Some archaeologists interpret these as mother goddesses, inferring religious beliefs.
  • Seals with depictions of animals (e.g., one-horned 'unicorn', bull) or figures (e.g., figure sitting in yogic posture, sometimes called 'proto-Shiva'). The meaning of these depictions and their religious significance is debated.
  • Structures like the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro or fire altars at Kalibangan are interpreted as having ritualistic importance.
• Comparing with later traditions: Some interpretations are based on comparing Harappan finds with later religious traditions in India (e.g., linking the 'proto-Shiva' figure to later Hindu deity Shiva). This practice can be controversial, as it assumes a continuity of traditions over thousands of years, which may not be accurate.
• Archaeologists' own biases: Interpretations can sometimes be influenced by the archaeologist's own cultural background, beliefs, or prior knowledge.

Piecing together the past of the Harappan civilisation is a continuous process of archaeological discovery and debated interpretation, highlighting the challenges of understanding societies without deciphered written records.

Prinsep And Piyadassi

The decipherment of ancient Indian scripts in the 19th century was a major breakthrough in understanding India's early history, particularly the reign of Emperor Ashoka. A key figure in this process was James Prinsep.

James Prinsep (1799-1840) was an English scholar and antiquarian who worked in the Mint of the East India Company in Calcutta. He played a pivotal role in deciphering two ancient Indian scripts: Brahmi and Kharosthi.

• These scripts were used in most of the inscriptions found on pillars and rocks across the Indian subcontinent, dating from the 3rd century BCE.
• Most of these inscriptions referred to a king called 'Piyadassi' or 'Piyadasi' (meaning 'pleasant to behold').
• Historians initially found it difficult to link Piyadassi to a known ruler.
• Buddhist texts provided a clue: they mentioned a ruler named Ashoka who was also called Piyadassi.
• By comparing the inscriptions and using information from other sources, Prinsep was able to confirm that Piyadassi was indeed Emperor Ashoka, one of the most famous rulers of ancient India (ruled from c. 268 to 232 BCE).

The decipherment of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts by James Prinsep in the 1830s was a monumental achievement. It allowed historians to read the edicts of Ashoka and other inscriptions, which provided direct, contemporary evidence about the Mauryan Empire, Ashoka's reign, his policies, administration, and his efforts to spread the Dhamma.

This discovery significantly expanded our knowledge of ancient Indian history, which had previously been largely based on later literary accounts. Prinsep's work demonstrated the power of decipherment in unlocking the secrets of the past.

Back To Basics How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

Deciphering ancient inscriptions is a complex process that requires linguistic knowledge, comparative methods, and often lucky breaks like finding bilingual texts. James Prinsep's success in deciphering Brahmi and Kharosthi is a good example of this process.

Deciphering Brahmi

• Most of the earliest inscriptions in India were written in the Brahmi script.
• Prinsep approached the problem systematically. He noticed that many inscriptions mentioned a king 'Piyadassi'.
• He found inscriptions from Sri Lanka written in Brahmi, which also referred to the king 'Piyadassi' and also to the title 'Devanampiya' (beloved of the gods), which was known from Buddhist texts to be associated with Ashoka.
• He also compared Brahmi inscriptions with ancient Greek and Brahmi bilingual coins found in India. The Greek script and language were known. By comparing the characters, he could identify that the coin had the name of the ruler in Greek and then match the Brahmi characters to the Greek name.
• Using these clues and comparing variations in characters across different inscriptions, Prinsep was able to gradually identify the different letters (vowels and consonants) of the Brahmi script.
• Once the letters were identified, he could read longer inscriptions and identify names and words, which, with the help of other sources (like Buddhist texts), led to the understanding of the language (Prakrit, with some Sanskrit).

How Kharosthi Was Read

• Kharosthi script was used in inscriptions in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent (around modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan).
• Kharosthi inscriptions often contained the names of Indo-Greek kings who ruled in the region after Alexander the Great.
• Many coins from this period were bilingual, containing the names of the rulers in both Greek (which was known) and Kharosthi scripts.
• By comparing the names of the kings written in Greek with the same names written in Kharosthi on these coins, scholars were able to identify the letters of the Kharosthi alphabet.

Historical Evidence From Inscriptions

Once deciphered, inscriptions become invaluable primary sources for historical reconstruction.

• Royal decrees and administration: Ashoka's edicts, for example, provide direct information about his policies, his Dhamma (moral code), his efforts for the welfare of his people, and his administration.
• Political history: Inscriptions can mention kings, dynasties, territories, battles, and political events.
• Social and economic life: Inscriptions recording land grants to religious institutions or individuals can provide information about land ownership patterns, social hierarchy, and economic activities. Guilds' records found in inscriptions shed light on their organisation and activities.
• Religious beliefs and practices: Dedicatory inscriptions to temples, stupas, or deities provide insights into religious practices and the popularity of different religious cults.
• Language and script development: Studying inscriptions from different periods helps trace the evolution of scripts and languages.

Decipherment transformed our understanding of ancient India by providing access to direct, contemporary written records from periods and rulers about whom our knowledge was previously limited or based on later accounts. It moved early Indian history from being largely 'prehistoric' or 'protohistoric' to a period with significant written evidence.

The Limitations Of Inscriptional Evidence

While inscriptions are invaluable sources for reconstructing ancient history, they are not without their limitations. Relying solely on inscriptional evidence can provide an incomplete or sometimes biased picture of the past.

Limitations of inscriptional evidence include:

• Technical limitations:
  • Inscriptions are often engraved on hard surfaces like stone, which deteriorates over time due to weathering or damage. Letters may fade or get chipped away, making them difficult or impossible to read.
  • Some inscriptions might be incomplete, with parts of the stone or metal plate broken.
  • The quality of the engraving can vary, making decipherment challenging.
• Content limitations:
  • Inscriptions primarily record specific types of information, such as royal orders, religious dedications, or grants. They often focus on the concerns of the rulers, elite, or religious institutions.
  • They may not provide detailed information about the daily lives, feelings, or perspectives of ordinary people, workers, or marginalized groups.
  • They may not cover all aspects of life, such as family relations, leisure activities, or artistic practices that were not related to public or religious records.
  • The information presented in an inscription might be biased. For example, a ruler's inscription might exaggerate his victories or present a favorable image of his rule.
  • Not all events or aspects of life were necessarily recorded in inscriptions. Many important things might not have been considered worthy of engraving on a permanent surface.
• Geographical limitations:
  • Inscriptions are found only in certain geographical areas where stone or other suitable materials were available or where the practice of inscribing was common.
  • Areas or periods with less prevalence of inscriptions are harder to study using this source.
• Language and script limitations:
  • Even if deciphered, the language of inscriptions might be specific to a region or period, requiring specialised linguistic knowledge.
  • Undeciphered scripts (like the Harappan script) mean that those inscriptions cannot be used as literary sources.
• Interpretation challenges:
  • Even after reading the text, interpreting the meaning and context can be complex, especially when terms or concepts from the past are unfamiliar.

Because of these limitations, historians cannot rely solely on inscriptional evidence. They must use it in conjunction with other sources (archaeological, other literary sources, accounts by foreign travellers) to build a more complete and nuanced picture of the past.

The Critical Edition Of The Mahabharata

The Mahabharata is one of the major epics of ancient India, a vast collection of narratives, philosophical teachings, and accounts of lineages and events. Like the Vedas, it was originally composed and transmitted orally for a long time, and later written down.

Over centuries, as the epic was copied and retold, various versions and additions were made in different regions and traditions. This resulted in numerous variant readings and passages in the available manuscripts of the Mahabharata.

To address this challenge and establish a more reliable text of the epic, a monumental project was undertaken in the 20th century: the creation of the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata.

The Critical Edition Project:

• The project was led by the Sanskrit scholar V.S. Sukthankar and carried out at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) in Pune, India.
• It took 47 years (from 1919 to 1966) to complete.
• Scholars involved in the project collected thousands of manuscripts of the Mahabharata from libraries all over India and abroad.
• They meticulously compared verses from these different manuscripts to identify the original verses and eliminate later additions or variations.
• They published the Critical Edition in 19 volumes, along with a volume of footnotes and an index.

The method used was to select the version of each verse that appeared most consistently in manuscripts from different regions. Passages or verses that were found in only a few manuscripts or were clearly later additions were often relegated to footnotes or appendices.

Significance of the Critical Edition:

• It established a standardised and relatively reliable text of the Mahabharata, based on extensive manuscript comparison.
• It provided scholars with a valuable tool for studying the epic's history, language, and content.
• It helped historians understand the complex process of textual transmission and evolution of ancient Indian literary works.

However, it is important to note that even the Critical Edition is an interpretation based on scholarly methodology. It does not claim to be the absolute 'original' text but rather the earliest reconstructible form based on available manuscripts.

Handling Texts Historians And The Mahabharata

Working with ancient texts like the Mahabharata presents unique challenges for historians. They treat such texts not just as stories but as potential sources of historical information, while also being aware of their complex nature and limitations.

Handling the Mahabharata as a Historical Source:

• Historians analyse the epic's content to look for clues about the society, culture, and economy of the period when it was composed and compiled.
• However, unlike historical chronicles, epics like the Mahabharata are primarily literary and religious works. They contain myths, legends, philosophical teachings, and narratives that may not be historically accurate in a literal sense.
• Historians need to be cautious and critical when extracting historical information from such texts. They look for patterns, consistent themes, and details that might reflect the social reality of the time.

Language And Content

• The language of the Mahabharata is Sanskrit, specifically an older form than classical Sanskrit in its core parts. Studying the language helps understand the linguistic context of the period.
• The content is vast, including the central narrative of the Kurukshetra War, stories about heroes and gods, discussions on dharma, ethics, politics, and social norms.
• Historians examine different sections of the epic. Some sections (like the genealogical accounts) might contain some elements of historical traditions, while others (like mythological stories or philosophical discourses) might primarily reflect ideas and beliefs.
• For example, descriptions of warfare, social divisions (varnas), family structures, or political ideas found in the Mahabharata can be analysed to infer aspects of society during its composition period.

Author(S) And Dates

• The traditional author of the Mahabharata is Rishi Vyasa. However, the epic was likely composed and compiled over a long period by multiple individuals, not a single person.
• Estimating the date of the Mahabharata is complex due to its long oral tradition and gradual compilation.
• Scholars estimate that the core narrative might have originated around 1000 BCE to 500 BCE.
• The epic reached its present form, with most of its additions and philosophical sections, between roughly 400 BCE and 400 CE. This long period of compilation means that the epic reflects social and cultural conditions of different times.
• Historians must consider that different parts of the epic might have been composed at different times and reflect different historical contexts.

The Search For Convergence

To use the Mahabharata as a historical source, historians look for convergence – where information from the epic is corroborated by other independent sources.

• For example, if the epic describes certain social practices, and archaeological evidence from the same period confirms those practices (e.g., types of housing, tools, or burial practices), it strengthens the possibility that the epic reflects historical reality in that aspect.
• Comparing information from the epic with other literary sources from similar periods (e.g., Dharmashastras, other epics, Puranas) can also reveal consistent themes.

When the epic's narrative or details converge with evidence from archaeology, inscriptions, or other contemporary/near-contemporary sources, it increases the likelihood that the epic contains elements reflecting historical conditions.

A Dynamic Text (Mahabharata)

The Mahabharata is considered a dynamic text because it was not static but evolved over centuries. As it was transmitted orally and later copied, it underwent continuous additions, modifications, and interpretations.

Reasons for the Mahabharata being a dynamic text:

• Oral Tradition: For a long time, the epic was recited and transmitted orally by bards and storytellers. During this process, variations were introduced, new stories were added, and some parts might have been modified to suit the audience or the storyteller.
• Multiple Authorship and Compilation: The epic was not the work of a single author at one time but was compiled and added to by various individuals over centuries. Different recensions (versions) of the epic developed in different regions.
• Inclusion of Diverse Content: Over time, the epic absorbed material on various subjects, including philosophical teachings (Bhagavad Gita), legal principles (Dharma), political ideas, genealogies, and regional legends, alongside the core narrative of the Kurukshetra War. This made it a vast repository of Indian traditions.
• Social and Cultural Context: The epic was influenced by the changing social, religious, and political conditions of the times it was being compiled. Additions might reflect new religious movements, social changes, or political ideologies.

The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata attempts to go back to the earliest possible form of the text based on available manuscripts, but it also highlights the immense variability present in the manuscripts, confirming the dynamic nature of the epic.

Studying the Mahabharata as a dynamic text helps historians understand not just the content but also the evolution of ideas and traditions over a long period in Indian history.

“Discovering” Stupas

Stupas are Buddhist monuments, typically dome-shaped structures containing relics of the Buddha or other Buddhist monks. They are important archaeological sources for understanding Buddhism and the history of ancient India.

While stupas were significant Buddhist structures, their historical importance and the information they contained were 'discovered' by archaeologists and historians in the 19th century. Before the decipherment of Brahmi and systematic archaeological surveys, stupas were simply seen as ancient mounds or structures without their full historical context being understood.

Significance of Stupas for History:

• Religious importance: Stupas are sacred structures for Buddhists, representing the Buddha's presence and serving as places of worship.
• Architectural evidence: The structure of stupas and the carvings on their railings and gateways (toranas) provide information about ancient architecture, art, and craftsmanship.
• Narrative panels: The carvings on the railings and gateways of some stupas (e.g., Bharhut, Sanchi) depict scenes from the Jataka stories (stories about the previous lives of the Buddha), events from the Buddha's life, and scenes of daily life. These narratives are valuable sources for understanding the religious beliefs, social customs, attire, and artistic styles of the period.
• Inscriptions: Stupas often contain inscriptions, such as dedications by donors (monks, nuns, lay people) on the pillars or railings. These inscriptions provide information about the people who contributed to the construction or embellishment of the stupa, revealing aspects of social structure and patronage of Buddhism. They are also crucial for dating the stupa or parts of it.
• Discovery of relics: Excavation of stupas has sometimes revealed relics of the Buddha or other Buddhist figures, providing direct links to the history of Buddhism.

*(Image shows a photograph of the Sanchi Stupa or its decorated gateway)*

'Discovering' stupas in a historical sense involved not just finding the physical structures but also deciphering the inscriptions and interpreting the carvings to understand their meaning and significance within the context of ancient Indian history and Buddhism. This process of archaeological investigation and interpretation revealed important aspects of the past that were previously unknown.