Early Humans and the Transition to Settled Life

The Earliest People: Why Were They On The Move?

The earliest people who lived on the Indian subcontinent, millions of years ago, were hunter-gatherers. They lived a nomadic life, meaning they were constantly on the move. There were several reasons for them to move from place to place:

Reasons for the nomadic life of early hunter-gatherers:

• To find food: If they stayed in one place for too long, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources. Moving to new places ensured a continuous supply of food.
• Following animal movements: Animals move from place to place in search of food (grass, leaves) or water. Hunter-gatherers had to follow these animal movements for hunting.
• Searching for different types of plants: Plants bear fruits and other produce in different seasons. People needed to move to different areas to find different types of plants in different seasons.
• Seeking water: Water sources like rivers and lakes might dry up during the dry seasons. People had to move to places where water was available.

Being on the move was essential for their survival, ensuring they could find the resources needed for food, shelter, and water throughout the year.

How Do We Know About These People?

We don't have written records from the time of the earliest people (prehistory), as they had not developed writing. Our knowledge about them comes from the objects they left behind. Archaeologists study these objects to reconstruct the lives of early humans.

Archaeologists have found evidence of the activities of early hunter-gatherers in the form of stone tools. These tools provide key insights:

• Making tools: Early people made and used stone tools for various purposes. The discovery of these tools is the main way we know about their presence.
• Using tools: Stone tools were used for:
  • Cutting meat and bone.
  • Scraping bark from trees and hides from animals.
  • Chopping fruits and roots.
  • Making spears and arrows for hunting.
  • Chopping wood, which was used as firewood.

By studying the types of stone tools, how they were made, and what they were used for, archaeologists can infer aspects of the lifestyle, skills, and diet of early hunter-gatherers.

Sometimes, archaeologists find sites where stone tools were made (factory sites) or where they were used extensively (habitation sites or a combination). The locations of these sites, often near water sources and areas with good quality stone for tools, also provide clues about where and how early people lived.

Choosing A Place To Live In

The earliest people carefully chose where to live based on the availability of essential resources. Their nomadic lifestyle meant they would stay in a place as long as resources were sufficient and then move on.

Factors influencing the choice of a place to live:

• Water sources: Living near rivers, lakes, or perennial springs was crucial for drinking, bathing, and for the animals and plants they relied on.
• Availability of stone: Good quality stone was needed to make tools. Sites where stone was readily available were often favoured for making tools (factory sites). Examples of such sites include Hunsgi in the Deccan.
• Availability of food: Places with abundant plant and animal life were suitable for gathering and hunting.
• Shelter: Natural shelters like caves and rock shelters provided protection from rain, heat, and wind. Examples of sites where people lived in caves include the rock shelters of the Vindhya range and the Deccan plateau, particularly in places like Bhimbetka (in Madhya Pradesh), which has ancient rock paintings.

Archaeological evidence helps identify these sites and understand the reasons behind their selection. Sites can be broadly classified as:

• Habitation sites: Places where people lived.
• Factory sites: Places where stone tools were made.
• Habitation cum factory sites: Places where people lived and also made tools.

Understanding the location of these sites gives archaeologists insights into the movements, activities, and resource needs of early human populations.

Finding Out About Fire

The discovery and control of fire was a major turning point in human history. It provided early humans with new capabilities and changed their way of life. Evidence suggests that early humans in the Indian subcontinent were also aware of and used fire.

Archaeologists have found evidence of the use of fire at sites like Kurnool Caves in Andhra Pradesh.

• Finds from these caves include traces of ash.
• The presence of ash suggests that early people were familiar with fire.

The control of fire provided several benefits:

• Source of warmth: Provided heat during cold weather.
• Light: Provided light in dark places like caves.
• Scaring away animals: Fire could be used to frighten away wild animals, providing protection.
• Cooking food: Fire allowed people to cook food, which could make some foods easier to digest and safer to eat.

The use of fire was a significant technological advance that improved the safety, comfort, and diet of early human communities.

A Changing Environment (Prehistory)

The Earth's climate and environment were not static during the long period when early humans lived. Significant changes occurred, which influenced the distribution of plants, animals, and human populations.

Around 12,000 years ago, there was a major shift in the world's climate. This period marked a warming of the Earth's climate, leading to several changes:

• End of the Ice Age: The last Ice Age came to an end, leading to warmer temperatures.
• Development of grasslands: Warmer temperatures led to the development of vast grasslands in many areas.
• Increase in grass-eating animals: The increase in grasslands supported an increase in populations of grass-eating animals like deer, antelope, goat, sheep, and cattle.
• New opportunities for hunting: People who hunted these animals followed them, observing their food habits and breeding seasons. This knowledge later helped them in herding and rearing animals.
• Appearance of new grain-bearing grasses: Wild varieties of wheat, barley, and rice began to grow naturally in different parts of the subcontinent. People collected these grains as food. This is thought to have led to the beginning of farming.

This period of environmental change, beginning around 12,000 years ago, is also associated with changes in human tool technology (Microliths) and is generally considered the start of the Mesolithic period. The warming climate and the resulting ecological changes played a crucial role in paving the way for the development of agriculture and settled life.

The Beginning Of Farming And Herding

The transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of farming and herding was one of the most significant changes in human history. It marked the Neolithic Revolution and laid the foundation for settled communities and the rise of civilisations.

Around 10,000 years ago, people in different parts of the world, including the Indian subcontinent, began to practise farming and herding.

Farming (Domestication of Plants):

• People started observing the behaviour of plants – where edible plants grew, how seeds sprouted, when fruits ripened.
• They began protecting plants that they found useful and preventing them from being eaten by animals.
• They started planting seeds and growing their own crops. This was the beginning of farming or cultivation.
• Early crops included wheat, barley, rice, pulses, and millets.

Herding (Domestication of Animals):

• People also began to tame and domesticate animals.
• They observed animal behaviour and encouraged animals to come near their settlements.
• Early domesticated animals included dogs, sheep, goats, and cattle.
• People provided food and protection to these animals, and in return, animals provided milk, meat, wool, and were used for labour.

The process of people growing plants and looking after animals is called domestication. It was a gradual process that took place in many parts of the world over thousands of years.

Domestication led to significant changes in both plants and animals, making them different from their wild ancestors (e.g., domesticated plants produce larger grains, domesticated animals are often more docile). Wild species that were domesticated included wild wheat, barley, wild goat, wild sheep, wild cattle, and wild pig.

A New Way Of Life (Farming/Herding)

The adoption of farming and herding brought about a fundamental change in the way people lived. The nomadic lifestyle of hunter-gatherers gradually transitioned to a more settled way of life in villages.

Consequences of Farming and Herding:

• Settled life: When people started farming, they had to stay in one place for longer periods to look after their crops (from planting to harvesting). This led to the establishment of more permanent settlements, like villages.
• Food storage: Producing crops meant they had surplus food. This required developing methods for storing food grains safely. People made large clay pots or built pits in the ground for storage.
• New uses for plants and animals: Besides food, plants and animals provided other resources. For example, animals could be used for pulling ploughs or carrying burdens. Wool could be used for clothing.
• Development of new skills: Settled life and agriculture led to the development of new skills and technologies, such as making pots for storage and cooking, weaving cloth, and developing better tools.
• Increased population density: Farming could support larger populations in a given area compared to hunting and gathering.

This new way of life, based on farming and herding, characterised the Neolithic period (New Stone Age).

People still occasionally hunted and gathered, but farming and herding became increasingly important for their subsistence. The transition was gradual and varied in pace across different regions.

Finding Out About The First Farmers And Herders

Just like with early hunter-gatherers, our knowledge about the first farmers and herders comes from archaeological evidence. Archaeologists excavate sites where early farming and herding communities lived to find clues about their lives.

Evidence from Archaeological Sites:

• Remains of plants: Archaeologists find burnt grain or seeds. By identifying these remains, they can tell what crops were grown in that area.
• Remains of animals: Finding bones of animals helps identify what animals were kept or hunted. Studying teeth and bones can also indicate whether animals were wild or domesticated.
• Tools: Finding tools used for farming (e.g., polished stone tools like axes for clearing land, sickles for harvesting) or processing food (mortars and pestles for grinding grains) provides evidence of agricultural practices. Stone tools from the Neolithic period are often polished, unlike the earlier unpolished tools.
• Houses and structures: Remains of houses (e.g., pit-houses in Burzahom, Kashmir; rectangular houses in Mehrgarh) tell us about their living structures and settlement patterns.
• Pottery: Finding pottery vessels is common at Neolithic sites. Pottery was used for storing food, cooking, and sometimes for decoration.
• Burial sites: Studying burials can provide information about their beliefs, social practices, and health.

By combining evidence from these different types of finds from various sites, archaeologists can build a picture of the lives of the first farmers and herders in different regions.

Examples of important Neolithic sites where evidence of early farming and herding has been found in the Indian subcontinent include Mehrgarh (in present-day Pakistan), Burzahom (in Kashmir), Chirand (in Bihar), Daojali Hading (in the northeast), and sites in South India (e.g., Hallur, Paiyampalli).

Towards A Settled Life

The transition from a mobile hunter-gatherer existence to a settled life in villages based on farming and herding was a gradual but profound shift. This transformation occurred over thousands of years and involved significant adaptations in human behaviour and social organisation.

Factors Contributing to Settled Life:

• Requirement of farming: As discussed, cultivating crops required people to stay in one place for a period, from planting to harvesting.
• Food storage: Producing surplus food necessitated finding ways to store it, which was easier in a fixed location.
• Animal rearing: Keeping and managing domesticated animals also encouraged staying in one place, especially if they had enclosures or pastures nearby.
• Development of heavier tools and pottery: As people settled, they could make and use heavier tools and pottery that were difficult to carry around constantly.
• Emergence of communities: Living together in a settlement led to the development of village communities, with social rules, division of labour, and shared resources.

However, people did not abandon hunting and gathering immediately or completely. These activities continued alongside farming and herding, especially in certain seasons or environments. The transition was complex, with different communities adopting different combinations of these activities.

The development of settled villages paved the way for increased population density, more complex social structures, the emergence of crafts and specialisation, and eventually the rise of towns and cities.

A Closer Look — Living And Dying In Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh is an important archaeological site located near the Bolan Pass in present-day Pakistan. It is considered one of the earliest sites showing evidence of farming and herding in South Asia, dating back around 8000 years ago. Excavations at Mehrgarh provide valuable insights into the lives and burial practices of early settled communities.

Life in Mehrgarh:

• Archaeologists have found evidence of early farming of wheat and barley and rearing of sheep and goats at Mehrgarh. This confirms it as an early agricultural settlement.
• Remains of rectangular houses have been found. These houses had multiple compartments, some of which might have been used for storage. This indicates a more permanent and organised way of living compared to temporary shelters.
• Archaeologists have also found tools, including axes, sickles, and grinding stones, used for farming and processing grains.

Burial Practices in Mehrgarh:

• Numerous burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh.
• The dead were buried in pits.
• Interestingly, burials often contained grave goods – items placed with the deceased. These included pottery, stone beads, copper objects, shells, and sometimes even animal bones (e.g., goats).
• The presence of grave goods suggests a belief that there might be some form of life after death, where the deceased might need these items.
• In some burials, more items or different types of items were found compared to others. For example, in one burial, the dead person was buried with several goats, which were presumably meant to serve as food in the afterlife. These differences in grave goods might indicate social differences within the community.

The evidence from Mehrgarh, including the remains of houses, agricultural activities, tools, and particularly the burial practices, provides a rich picture of early settled life in the region and the beliefs of the people who lived there.

Elsewhere (Cave Paintings In France)

While we look at archaeological sites in the Indian subcontinent, similar evidence of early human activity exists in other parts of the world. Cave paintings are a prominent example of this.

Example: Cave paintings in Lascaux, France.

• Lascaux Cave in France is famous for its spectacular cave paintings created by early humans.
• These paintings are estimated to be around 17,000 years old.
• The paintings primarily depict animals such as wild horses, bisons, mammoths, rhinoceroses, lions, bears, and deers, often shown in dynamic poses.
• The paintings were made using natural pigments like charcoal, ochre (earth pigments).

These paintings provide insights into:

• The animals early people were familiar with: Reflecting the fauna of the region at that time and the animals they hunted.
• Their artistic skills: Showing their ability to represent the world around them visually.
• Their beliefs or rituals: The purpose of these paintings is debated; some theories suggest they were related to hunting magic, rituals, or recording events.

Comparing such archaeological findings from different continents (like cave paintings in France and rock paintings in India at Bhimbetka) allows archaeologists to see similarities and differences in the lives and artistic expressions of early human populations across the globe, highlighting shared aspects of human behaviour and culture.

Elsewhere (A Neolithic Site)

Understanding the transition to farming and herding also involves looking at evidence from Neolithic sites in other regions of the world. These examples help place the developments in the Indian subcontinent within a broader global context of the Neolithic Revolution.

Example: Çatalhöyük (pronounced Chatal-hooyook) - a famous Neolithic site in Turkey (South-West Asia).

• Çatalhöyük is a large and well-preserved Neolithic settlement, dating back around 9000 years ago.
• Archaeologists have found evidence of various crops grown there, including wheat, barley, pulses, and domesticated animals like cattle.
• Houses were built close together, with no streets between them. People entered houses through openings in the roof.
• Findings include flint (stone) from a distance, shells from the Mediterranean Sea, and cowrie shells from the Red Sea. These suggest that people from Çatalhöyük travelled over long distances, perhaps in exchange for local goods, indicating the beginning of trade networks.

This site provides a detailed picture of early village life, agricultural practices, animal husbandry, architectural styles, and early trade in another region where the transition to settled life occurred. Comparing sites like Mehrgarh and Çatalhöyük allows archaeologists to study similarities and variations in the Neolithic Revolution across different parts of the world.

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