Developments in Religious Beliefs and Practices (Hinduism, Upanishads)

Upanishads

Towards the end of the Vedic period (around 800-500 BCE), some thinkers began to move away from the focus on elaborate rituals and sacrifices and started seeking deeper philosophical understanding. Their ideas were compiled in the Upanishads, which are part of the later Vedic texts.

The word 'Upanishad' literally means 'sitting near' or 'sitting down near' a teacher to receive secret instructions. The Upanishads are dialogues between teachers and students, discussing fundamental questions about existence, the nature of reality, the soul (Atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman).

Key Themes in the Upanishads:

• Search for ultimate reality: Exploring the nature of Brahman, the universal consciousness or reality underlying everything.
• Nature of the soul: Investigating the Atman, the individual soul or self, and its relationship with Brahman.
• Karma and Rebirth: Discussions on the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and the principle of karma (actions and their consequences).
• Achieving Liberation (Moksha): Exploring ways to break free from the cycle of samsara and achieve union with or realisation of Brahman. This involved knowledge (Jnana) and meditation rather than just rituals.

The Upanishads represent a shift in focus from ritualistic worship to philosophical inquiry and mystical experience. They form the philosophical basis of later Hindu thought.

Six Schools Of Indian Philosophy

The philosophical ideas discussed in the Upanishads and other ancient texts later developed into various schools of Indian philosophy. The classical schools of Hindu philosophy are often grouped into six orthodox (Astika) schools, which accept the authority of the Vedas, and heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka).

The six orthodox schools are:

1. Samkhya: Dualistic philosophy, distinguishing between consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti).
2. Yoga: Path to liberation through physical and mental discipline, meditation, and union with the divine. (Associated with Patanjali).
3. Nyaya: Focuses on logic, epistemology (theory of knowledge).
4. Vaisheshika: Atomistic philosophy, classifying reality into categories.
5. Purva Mimamsa: Focuses on the interpretation of Vedic rituals and their performance.
6. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta): Based on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras. Explores the relationship between Atman and Brahman. Includes various sub-schools (e.g., Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita).

These schools represent diverse but interconnected philosophical traditions that have evolved over centuries, drawing from and debating the ideas in the Upanishads and other foundational texts.

The Wise Beggar

This likely refers to a story within the Upanishads or related texts that illustrates a philosophical point, often through a dialogue between a teacher (sometimes presented in a humble guise, like a beggar) and a student or another character. Such stories were used to convey complex philosophical concepts in an accessible manner.

The story might highlight that true wisdom or understanding is not limited to those of high social status or learning but can be found in unexpected places or individuals. It reinforces the Upanishadic focus on the search for knowledge beyond external appearances or social distinctions.

The System Of Ashramas (linked to Vedic/Upanishadic thought)

The concept of Ashramas is a framework within the ancient Indian social system, linked to the ideas of living a life in accordance with Dharma and pursuing spiritual goals throughout one's life. It divides a human lifespan into four stages or ashramas.

The Four Ashramas:

The Ashrama system, primarily described in Dharmashastras and other texts, represents an idealised life cycle for particularly the men of the upper three varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas). The four ashramas are:

1. Brahmacharya (Student life): The initial stage, focused on learning and education, living with a guru (teacher), and studying the Vedas.
2. Grihastha (Householder life): The stage of marriage, raising a family, fulfilling social and familial duties, and engaging in economic activity.
3. Vanaprastha (Forest dweller): The stage of gradual withdrawal from worldly life, living in a forest, and pursuing spiritual practices and meditation.
4. Sannyasa (Renouncer): The final stage, complete renunciation of worldly ties and possessions, wandering as an ascetic, and dedicating oneself entirely to the pursuit of spiritual liberation (Moksha).

This system provided a structured approach to life, ensuring that different stages were dedicated to learning, fulfilling social obligations, and pursuing spiritual goals. It reflects an attempt to integrate different aspects of life within a broader framework of Dharma and liberation.

It is important to note that the Ashrama system was a theoretical ideal prescribed in texts and may not have been universally followed in practice across all sections of society or throughout history. It primarily reflects the norms and aspirations of the upper castes.

New Religious Traditions (Hinduism)

While Buddhism and Jainism emerged as distinct new religions, the period after the decline of the Mauryan Empire and in the subsequent centuries saw significant developments within the broader religious landscape that would later be identified as Hinduism. These developments involved the rise of new deities, the composition of Puranas, and the construction of temples.

The Development Of Mahayana Buddhism

• After the Buddha's death, Buddhism evolved over time and divided into different schools. One major development was the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism (the 'Great Vehicle').
• Mahayana Buddhism, which became prominent around the 1st century CE onwards, introduced new ideas and practices compared to the earlier Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism.
• Key features of Mahayana Buddhism:
  • Deification of the Buddha: The Buddha was worshipped as a divine being, not just a human teacher.
  • Concept of Bodhisattvas: Individuals who have attained enlightenment but delay their own entry into Nirvana to help others achieve liberation. Bodhisattvas became objects of worship.
  • Emphasis on compassion and the salvation of all beings.
  • Development of elaborate rituals, devotional practices, and image worship (creating statues of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas).
• Mahayana Buddhism was patronised by rulers like the Kushanas (e.g., Kanishka). It spread widely in Central Asia, China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia.

The Growth Of Puranic Hinduism

• Alongside the developments in Buddhism, major changes occurred in the Brahmanical tradition, leading to the emergence of what is often called Puranic Hinduism.
• This period saw the rise of new, important deities and the composition of texts called the Puranas.
• Prominent Deities: Deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Goddesses (Devi forms like Durga, Lakshmi, Parvati) gained prominence and became major objects of worship. These deities were worshipped through devotion (Bhakti).
• Puranas: These are ancient texts composed around the early centuries CE. They contain stories about deities, genealogies of kings, myths, cosmology, and religious practices. They provided a new framework for understanding Hindu beliefs and rituals, often making religious ideas more accessible to ordinary people compared to the complex Vedic rituals.
• Bhakti: The concept of loving devotion to a personal deity became a central path to spiritual liberation. This appealed to people from all social backgrounds, challenging the varna-based restrictions on religious practices.
• Idol worship: The worship of images or idols of deities became widespread.

Building Temples

• With the rise of prominent deities and image worship, the practice of constructing temples to house the idols of deities became increasingly common from the Gupta period onwards.
• Early temples were relatively simple, but over time, elaborate temple architecture developed, with distinct regional styles (e.g., Nagara in North India, Dravidian in South India).
• Temples became important centres of religious activity, social gathering, cultural performance (music, dance), and sometimes economic activity (through land grants and donations).

*(Image shows a photograph of an ancient Hindu temple building)*

These developments in Mahayana Buddhism and Puranic Hinduism, including the emphasis on devotion, image worship, the composition of new texts, and the construction of temples, represented significant shifts in the religious landscape of ancient India, shaping the forms of these religions as they are known today.