Early Vedic Period and Later Developments

One Of The Oldest Books In The World (Rigveda)

The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, and it is considered one of the oldest religious texts in the world that has been continuously transmitted. It is the oldest of the four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda).

Composition and Transmission:

• The Rigveda was composed about 3500 years ago (around 1500 BCE).
• It was composed in an old form of Sanskrit (Vedic Sanskrit).
• For centuries, the Rigveda was not written down. It was transmitted orally from generation to generation through meticulous recitation and memorisation by priests and scholars.
• The oral tradition was very important for preserving the text accurately.
• It was written down much later, several centuries after its initial composition.

Content:

• The Rigveda is a collection of over 1000 hymns (suktas), divided into 10 books (mandalas).
• The hymns are in praise of various deities, such as Agni (god of fire), Indra (a warrior god, chief of gods), Soma (a plant and a drink).
• The hymns were recited and chanted during sacrifices and rituals performed by priests.

Significance as a Historical Source:

• As one of the earliest surviving literary sources, the Rigveda provides valuable, albeit indirect, information about the Early Vedic period (also known as the Rigvedic period).
• It sheds light on the religious beliefs, social organisation, economic activities, and geography of the people who composed these hymns.
• (See the chapter "Ancient Indian Sources", Section I1, for more on how historians study the Rigveda).

The Rigveda is a cornerstone for understanding the foundations of Vedic culture and society in ancient India.

Sanskrit And Other Languages

The Rigveda was composed in an early form of Sanskrit. Sanskrit belongs to a large family of languages known as the Indo-European language family. Studying these language families and their connections helps us understand historical migrations and cultural links.

Indo-European Language Family:

• Sanskrit is part of the Indo-European family, which includes many languages spoken in Europe (e.g., English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish) and some in Asia (e.g., Persian, Hindi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Assamese, Odia, Bengali).
• Many words are similar across these languages, suggesting they might have a common ancestral language.
  • Sanskrit: *matr*
  • Hindi: *ma*
  • English: *mother*
  • Sanskrit: *pitr*
  • Hindi: *pita*
  • English: *father*
  • Sanskrit: *bhratr*
  • Hindi: *bhai*
  • English: *brother*

Other Language Families in India:

Besides Indo-European languages, other language families are spoken in India:

• Dravidian languages: Spoken in South India (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam).
• Tibeto-Burman languages: Spoken in the northeastern regions.
• Austroasiatic languages: Spoken in parts of eastern and central India.

Studying the distribution and history of these language families is part of understanding the diverse linguistic and cultural landscape of India and its historical development.

Vishvamitra And The Rivers

One of the hymns in the Rigveda (Rigveda X.75) is a dialogue between the sage Vishvamitra and two rivers, Beas and Sutlej. This hymn provides a glimpse into the importance of rivers and how the early Vedic people perceived the natural world.

The Hymn's Content:

• In the hymn, Vishvamitra is crossing the rivers with his chariots and horses.
• He addresses the rivers as goddesses and requests them to lower their waters so that he can cross safely.
• The rivers respond, promising to allow him to cross.

Significance for Historians:

• Importance of Rivers: The hymn highlights the vital role of rivers in the lives of the early Vedic people. Rivers were sources of water, supported agriculture and pastoralism, and were likely important for transport.
• Geography: The mention of specific rivers (Beas and Sutlej, which are tributaries of the Indus) helps locate the geographical region where these hymns were composed – the region of the Indus and its tributaries (Sapt Sindhu).
• Beliefs: The hymn shows that rivers were personified and worshipped as deities, reflecting the early Vedic people's religious beliefs and reverence for nature.
• Economy/Society: The mention of chariots and horses points towards their use in warfare, transport, or pastoral activities.

By analysing such hymns, historians can extract information about the early Vedic people's relationship with their environment, their beliefs, and aspects of their daily life, adding to the insights gained from the Rigveda as a whole.

Cattle, Horses And Chariots (Vedic Economy/Warfare)

The Rigveda provides numerous references to cattle, horses, and chariots. These were not just mentioned in hymns but seem to have played a central role in the economy, social status, and warfare of the Early Vedic period.

Importance of Cattle:

• Wealth: Cattle were considered the most valuable form of wealth. The prosperity of a family or tribe was often measured by the number of cattle they owned.
• Food: Cattle provided milk and meat.
• Agriculture: Cattle were likely used for ploughing fields (oxen).
• Religious significance: Cattle were often offered in sacrifices.
• Battles were often fought over land (for pastures) and cattle. The term 'gavishthi' (search for cows) in the Rigveda often refers to battles.

Importance of Horses:

• Horses were highly valued, especially for their speed.
• They were used to pull chariots.
• Horses were often offered in sacrifices (e.g., Ashvamedha sacrifice, although this ritual became more prominent in the Later Vedic period).

Importance of Chariots:

• Chariots were pulled by horses and were primarily used in battles.
• Possession of chariots indicated military strength and the status of the warrior class (Kshatriyas, although the varna system was less rigid in the Early Vedic period).
• Indra, the chief deity, is often described as a great warrior who fought battles from his chariot.

*(Image shows an illustration of a chariot pulled by horses, possibly with warriors)*

The emphasis on cattle, horses, and chariots in the Rigveda highlights the pastoral and agricultural basis of the economy, the importance of warfare (often over resources like cattle and land), and the developing social hierarchy associated with wealth (cattle ownership) and military prowess (chariot warriors).

Words To Describe People (Vedic Society)

The Rigveda uses various words to describe different groups of people, providing clues about the social organisation of the Early Vedic society.

Social Groups Mentioned in the Rigveda:

• Priests (Brahmins): Performed various rituals and sacrifices. Held a position of importance in society.
• Rajas (Chiefs/Rulers): Led the tribes in battles. They did not have capital cities, palaces, or armies in the way later kings did. They did not collect taxes regularly.
• Jan (Janas): Refers to the tribes or communities. People were identified by the Jan or tribe they belonged to (e.g., Puru Jana, Bharata Jana, Yadu Jana).
• Vish: Refers to the settlements or groups of people within a Jan. The term 'Vaishya' later emerged from 'Vish'.
• Grama: Refers to a village or a group of families.

Distinguishing Between Groups:

• The Rigveda describes people who composed the hymns (Aryas) and their opponents (Dasas or Dasyus).
• Aryas: Described themselves as Aryas. They praised their gods, performed sacrifices, and spoke Sanskrit or related languages.
• Dasas/Dasyus: Described as opponents or enemies of the Aryas. They had different language, different religious practices (did not perform sacrifices). They were often conquered and enslaved. The term 'dasa' later came to mean slave.

Social Hierarchy (Early Vedic Period):

• While social divisions existed (priests, chiefs, ordinary people, and Dasas/slaves), the social hierarchy in the Early Vedic period was not as rigid as the later Varna system.
• People could potentially change their occupation or move between groups.
• Inheritance of status was perhaps less fixed than in later periods.

This information from the Rigveda provides a picture of a tribal society with distinctions based on occupation, leadership in warfare, and cultural differences (Aryas vs. Dasas), which evolved into a more complex and stratified system in the Later Vedic period.