New Kingdoms and Dynasties (Early Medieval, Cholas)

The Emergence Of New Dynasties (Early Medieval)

The period after the decline of the Gupta Empire in North India (around 6th century CE) and other major powers in the Deccan saw the emergence of several new dynasties and kingdoms across the subcontinent. This marks the beginning of the Early Medieval period (roughly 8th to 12th centuries CE).

Key features of this period include:

• Political fragmentation: No single power controlled the entire subcontinent. Different regions were ruled by various regional dynasties, often engaged in conflicts with each other.
• Rise of regional kingdoms: New kingdoms emerged, asserting their independence and establishing control over their territories. Examples include the Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, etc.
• Feudal-like structures: The practice of granting land (samantas) to military chiefs or Brahmins became more widespread. These samantas often gained power and challenged the central authority, contributing to fragmentation.

How New Dynasties Emerged:

• Existing chiefs or subordinate rulers (samantas) under larger kingdoms gradually increased their power and wealth.
• They gained military strength and asserted their independence from their overlords.
• They often performed elaborate rituals and adopted grand titles to legitimise their rule and claim high status.
• They expanded their territories through military conquests and alliances.

Example: The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were initially subordinates of the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and established the Rashtrakuta kingdom.

These new dynasties established regional states that became important centres of power, culture, and economic activity in the Early Medieval period.

A Closer Look: The Cholas

The Cholas were one of the most prominent dynasties of South India during the Early Medieval period. They ruled over the Tamil region (parts of modern Tamil Nadu) and built a powerful empire, known for its military strength, maritime activities, and significant cultural achievements.

Rise To Power

• The Cholas had been rulers in South India since the Sangam period, but their power declined after the 3rd century CE.
• In the mid-9th century CE, Vijayalaya, a chief from the Uraiyur region (a subordinate of the Pallava kings), captured the delta region from the Muttaraiyar (subordinates of the Pallavas).
• He established the town of Thanjavur and built a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
• Vijayalaya's successors expanded the kingdom, conquering neighboring territories from the Pallavas and the Pandyas.
• The Chola Empire reached its peak under powerful rulers like Rajaraja I (ruled c. 985-1014 CE) and his son Rajendra I (ruled c. 1014-1044 CE).
• Rajaraja I established a strong administration and expanded the empire through conquests.
• Rajendra I not only continued his father's expansionist policies but also led a military expedition to North India (reaching the Ganga valley) and a naval expedition to Southeast Asia (conquering territories in Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of modern Indonesia and Malaysia).

*(Image shows a map illustrating the territorial extent of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja I or Rajendra I)*

Splendid Temples And Bronze Sculpture

• Chola rulers built magnificent temples, particularly in their capital Thanjavur and other cities.
• Temples like the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur (built by Rajaraja I) and the temple at Gangaikondacholapuram (built by Rajendra I) are outstanding examples of Dravidian temple architecture and royal patronage.
• These temples were not just places of worship but also centres of economic, social, and cultural life. They received land grants and donations and often employed large numbers of people (priests, dancers, musicians, craftspersons).
• The Chola period is also renowned for its exquisite bronze sculptures, particularly the iconic images of deities (e.g., Nataraja - Shiva as the cosmic dancer). These bronze statues were made using the lost-wax technique and are considered masterpieces of Indian art.

*(Image shows a photograph of the Brihadisvara Temple or a Chola bronze Nataraja sculpture)*

Agriculture And Irrigation

• Agriculture was the basis of the Chola economy. The fertile delta of the River Kaveri was the core agricultural region.
• Chola rulers paid great attention to irrigation to support intensive agriculture.
• Various types of irrigation works were constructed, including canals, wells, tanks, and embankments to prevent flooding in delta areas.
• Inscriptions provide details about these irrigation works and the role of local communities in their maintenance.
• The prosperity of the Chola empire was largely supported by its flourishing agriculture based on effective irrigation.

The Administration Of The Empire

• The Chola Empire had a well-organised and efficient administration, although the extent of centralisation is debated by historians.
• The empire was divided into provinces (mandalam), which were further subdivided into districts (nadu) and villages (ur/kurram).
• Village administration was notable, with details from inscriptions (e.g., from Uttaramerur) providing insights into the functioning of village assemblies (sabhas) and their committees, elected by the villagers for managing irrigation, temples, gardens, etc.
• The Chola rulers maintained a large army, including infantry, cavalry, and elephants, and a powerful navy, which was crucial for their maritime conquests and trade.
• Land revenue was the main source of income for the state. Revenue collection was systematised.
• Temples played an important role in administration, sometimes managing land and resources.

The Cholas were a powerful and influential dynasty, leaving behind a legacy of grand temples, exquisite bronze sculptures, and a well-structured administration based on a prosperous agricultural economy and thriving maritime trade.

The Pallavas, Chalukyas And Pulakeshin’s Prashasti (Early Medieval)

Besides the Cholas, other significant dynasties emerged in South India and the Deccan during the Early Medieval period, often engaged in conflicts with each other for dominance. The Pallavas and Chalukyas were two such rival powers, and inscriptions provide key information about their reigns and conflicts.

The Pallavas:

• Ruled in the region around Kanchipuram (modern Tamil Nadu) from the 6th to 9th centuries CE.
• Known for their patronage of art and architecture, particularly rock-cut temples and structural temples (e.g., Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram).
• They were often in conflict with the Chalukyas and Pandyas.
• Prominent Pallava rulers included Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I.

The Chalukyas:

• Ruled in the Deccan (parts of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra). The most prominent branch was the Early Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi).
• Ruled from the mid-6th to mid-8th centuries CE.
• Known for their rock-cut caves and early structural temples (e.g., Aihole, Pattadakal, Badami).
• They were often in conflict with the Pallavas.
• Prominent Chalukya rulers included Pulakeshin II.

Pulakeshin’s Prashasti:

• Prashasti is a Sanskrit word meaning 'in praise of'. Prashastis are inscriptions composed by court poets in praise of the ruler, highlighting their achievements, conquests, and qualities.
• The Aihole Prashasti is a famous inscription from the Chalukya period, located at the Meguti Temple in Aihole (Karnataka).
• It was composed by the court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit (using the Kannada script).
• The Prashasti describes the achievements of the most famous Chalukya ruler, Pulakeshin II (ruled c. 610-642 CE).
• It mentions his military victories against various kingdoms, including a notable victory against Emperor Harsha of North India.
• It also refers to his conflicts with the Pallavas, although it does not mention his defeat and death at the hands of the Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I.

*(Image shows a photograph of the stone slab with the Aihole Prashasti inscription)*

Prashastis like the Aihole Prashasti are valuable primary sources for political history, providing details about rulers, their achievements, and conflicts. However, as they are composed in praise, they tend to be biased and may exaggerate victories or omit defeats. Historians need to compare information from Prashastis with other sources (archaeological remains, foreign accounts, texts from rival kingdoms) to build a balanced historical narrative.