Mughal Society and Economy

Mansabdars And Jagirdars

The Mansabdari system was the backbone of the Mughal administration, integrating military and civil officials into a hierarchical ranking system. Mansabdars were the officials who held ranks (mansabs). They were central to Mughal power and governance.

Mansabs:

A mansab was a rank or position in the Mughal hierarchy. It determined the official's salary and status.
The rank had two components: Zat (personal rank and salary) and Sawar (number of cavalry troops the Mansabdar was required to maintain).
Mansabdars were recruited from diverse backgrounds and appointed by the emperor. Promotion was based on merit and loyalty, though family connections also played a role.

Jagirs:

Mansabdars were usually paid their salaries in the form of revenue assignments called jagirs.
A jagir was a piece of land (territory) whose land revenue was assigned to the Mansabdar instead of a direct salary from the imperial treasury.
The Mansabdar (now called a Jagirdar for the land assigned to them) was responsible for collecting the revenue from their jagir. They used this revenue to pay their own salary and maintain the troops according to their sawar rank.
Unlike hereditary land ownership, jagirs were usually temporary and transferable. Mansabdars were frequently transferred from one jagir to another to prevent them from establishing permanent roots and becoming too powerful.

*(Image shows a simple diagram illustrating the Mansabdar receiving a Jagir and collecting revenue from it to maintain troops)*

Challenges of the Jagirdari System:

The estimated revenue of a jagir (jama) often differed from the actual revenue collected (hasil). This created problems in accurately assigning jagirs corresponding to the Mansabdar's salary.
Frequent transfers could lead to Jagirdars exploiting the peasantry in their jagirs to maximise collection before transfer, without investing in the welfare or productivity of the land.
Towards the later Mughal period, an increase in the number of Mansabdars created a shortage of jagirs, leading to the 'jagirdari crisis' and contributing to the empire's financial strain.

The Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems were central to the Mughal administrative structure, providing the military and bureaucratic framework for ruling the vast empire, but they also contained inherent tensions and challenges that contributed to its decline.

Zabt And Zamindars

The Mughal Empire relied heavily on land revenue as its primary source of income. The system for assessing and collecting this revenue involved both state officials and powerful intermediaries called Zamindars. The Zabt system was a key method of land revenue assessment.

Zabt System:

The Zabt system was a land revenue assessment system developed during Akbar's reign.
It involved careful survey and measurement of cultivated land.
Land was classified based on its fertility and productivity.
Average yield and average prices of crops over a period (e.g., 10 years) were calculated for each area.
Revenue rates were fixed based on these averages, usually as a share of the produce (e.g., 1/3rd). The revenue could be paid in cash or kind.
The Zabt system aimed to ensure a fair and predictable assessment of revenue and was implemented in areas where the state had direct control and could conduct detailed surveys.

Zamindars:

Zamindars were powerful local intermediaries who held control over land and people in villages. They were not landowners in the modern sense, but controllers of land and collectors of revenue.
They included village headmen, local chieftains, and hereditary landlords.
The Mughals recognised the authority of Zamindars. Zamindars collected revenue from the peasants on behalf of the state (or the Jagirdar). They also often controlled local military forces.
In return for collecting revenue, Zamindars received a share of the collection.
Zamindars played a crucial role in connecting the state administration with the rural population.
However, Zamindars could also become powerful and sometimes rebelled against the Mughal authority.

*(Image shows a diagram illustrating the flow of revenue from peasants to Zamindars and then to the state/Jagirdar, highlighting the role of Zamindars as intermediaries)*

The Zabt system aimed for a more direct link between the state and the peasant, but the power and influence of Zamindars remained significant throughout the Mughal period, making them key figures in the agrarian structure and revenue administration.

Ordinary People In The Kingdoms (Mughal context likely)

While Mughal chronicles and court records focus on emperors, nobles, and administrative matters, historians also try to understand the lives of ordinary people living in the vast territories of the Mughal Empire. Sources like stories, literary works, and accounts by travellers provide glimpses into their experiences.

Ordinary People:

The majority of the population lived in villages and were engaged in agriculture.
Village communities included peasants, agricultural labourers, and various craftspersons.
People also lived in towns and cities, working as craftspersons, merchants, labourers, and service providers.
Their lives were shaped by factors like the changing seasons, agricultural cycles, demands for taxes, local administration, and social customs (varna and jati).

A Fisherman Finds A Ring

This likely refers to a story (perhaps a folk tale or a story in a collection like the Panchatantra, or possibly even a historical anecdote found in texts) that provides a glimpse into the life of an ordinary person, like a fisherman, and their interaction with the wider world or potentially with a person of higher status (e.g., if the ring belonged to royalty). Such stories, even if fictional, can reflect aspects of the daily life, occupations, and social environment of ordinary people in the past.

The King’s Army

Ordinary people were also connected to the state, sometimes through force. The king's army, while providing protection and enforcing authority, also drew manpower from the population.

Ordinary men might be recruited into the army, particularly the infantry.
Peasants sometimes faced demands for forced labour for state projects or military campaigns.
Villages and towns were affected by the movement of armies during campaigns or rebellions.

The presence and actions of the army had a direct impact on the lives of ordinary people, affecting their safety, resources, and daily routines.

Understanding the lives of ordinary people requires going beyond official records and looking for clues in diverse sources that reflect their daily struggles, aspirations, and interactions within the social and economic framework of the Mughal period.

Peasants And Agricultural Production (Mughal)

Peasants formed the largest section of the population in the Mughal Empire, and agriculture was the dominant economic activity. The Mughal state's revenue system was largely based on agricultural production.

Peasants And Their Lands

Peasants cultivated the land, which was their primary source of livelihood.
Peasant landholdings varied in size. Some were small, while others were larger.
Peasants had rights to the land they cultivated, although the nature of these rights varied (sometimes considered hereditary rights to cultivate, while ownership ultimately vested in the state or superior right holders).
Peasants produced a variety of crops for subsistence and sale, and also paid a significant portion of their produce as land revenue to the state or Zamindars.

Irrigation And Technology

Agricultural production depended on access to water and the technology used.
Rainfall was the primary source of water, but various irrigation methods were also employed, including wells, tanks, and canals (some large canals were built by the state).
Agricultural tools used included the plough (often pulled by oxen), sickles, and other implements. The use of iron tools was widespread.
New technologies like the Persian wheel were used for lifting water from wells, increasing irrigation efficiency.
The use of technologies like the spinning wheel also impacted the rural economy by facilitating textile production alongside agriculture.

An Abundance Of Crops

Mughal India had a diverse agricultural base. Peasants grew a wide variety of crops, both for subsistence and for commercial purposes.
Major crops included food grains (wheat, barley, rice, millets, pulses).
Cash crops grown for market and export included cotton, indigo, sugarcane, opium.
New crops were introduced during this period, such as tobacco, maize, potatoes (introduced by Europeans).
The variety and abundance of crops are described in Mughal chronicles and accounts by foreign travellers.

Image depicting Mughal period agricultural scene (peasants, plough, oxen, crops)

*(Image shows a historical painting or illustration depicting peasants working in fields with oxen and ploughs, showing various crops)*

Peasants and agricultural production were central to the Mughal economy. The state's primary link with the peasantry was through the land revenue system, which aimed to extract a significant share of the produce to maintain the administrative and military machinery of the empire.

The Village Community (Mughal)

Villages in Mughal India were the basic units of rural society and economy. They were complex communities with diverse social groups and intricate relationships.

Structure of the Village Community:

The village was inhabited by different groups of people, including peasants (khud-kasht and pahi-kasht), agricultural labourers, and village artisans.
The village community was not a homogenous unit; social differences based on caste and access to land and resources were significant.

Caste And The Rural Milieu

The caste system (varna and jati) was a fundamental aspect of social organisation in the villages.
Different jatis were often associated with specific occupations (peasants, blacksmiths, potters, etc.).
Social hierarchy and restrictions on inter-caste interactions were prevalent.
Access to land, resources, and social status was often linked to caste. Landless labourers often belonged to lower castes.
The presence of caste influenced social relations, division of labour, and sometimes even the settlement pattern within the village.

Panchayats And Headmen

Village affairs were often managed by a village council called the Panchayat. The Panchayat was an assembly of elders from different castes and communities within the village.
The Panchayat was usually headed by a village headman (muqaddam or mandal in North India, patil in Deccan).
The headman was often a powerful figure, typically a large landowner. He was chosen by the elders but subject to the approval of the state.
Functions of the Panchayat and Headman: Administered justice, resolved disputes, managed village resources, represented the village to the state, assisted in the collection of land revenue.

Village Artisans

Villages had various artisans who provided essential goods and services.
These included blacksmiths, carpenters, potters, weavers, barbers, washermen, etc.
Their services were often compensated by a share of the harvest from the peasants (jajmani system in some regions) or by payments in cash or kind.
Village artisans were crucial for the functioning of the agricultural economy, providing and maintaining tools and other necessities.

A “Little Republic”?

British officials in the 19th century sometimes described Indian villages as "little republics," suggesting they were relatively self-sufficient and independent units with their own system of governance (Panchayat) and internal social and economic relations.
While villages did have a degree of internal organisation and traditional structures, they were not fully independent.
They were integrated into the larger state structure through the system of land revenue collection and the authority of the state officials and Zamindars.
Village life was also influenced by broader social structures like caste and by economic forces like regional trade.

The village community in Mughal India was a complex social and economic unit, shaped by internal dynamics (caste, land ownership, Panchayat) and external influences (state administration, Zamindars, markets).

Women In Agrarian Society (Mughal)

Women played significant roles in the agrarian society of Mughal India, contributing to agricultural production and participating in various rural activities. Their roles and status were influenced by social norms (caste, religion) and economic factors.

Roles in Agriculture:

Women were actively involved in various agricultural tasks alongside men, including sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing, and winnowing.
In some regions, tasks like sowing paddy required intensive labour, in which women often participated.
Women were also involved in domestic tasks related to agriculture, such as processing grain, fetching water, and looking after livestock.

Craft Activities:

Women also participated in rural craft activities.
Spinning (converting cotton or wool into thread) was a common activity performed by women.
In some communities, women might have been involved in other crafts like weaving, pottery, or basket making.

Social Status and Rights:

While women were crucial to the rural economy, their social status and rights were often subordinate to men, influenced by patriarchal norms.
Access to land and property was generally limited for women, with inheritance primarily passing through the male line.
However, there were exceptions or variations depending on the community, region, and social status. For instance, women sometimes had rights to inherited 'streedhana' (gifts received at marriage).
Women from peasant families were less likely to have access to education or public life compared to women in elite families.

Mughal sources, like the Ain-i Akbari, sometimes provide brief mentions of the roles of women in agriculture or as labourers. These accounts, combined with visual evidence from paintings and information from other sources, help historians understand the significant but often underdocumented roles of women in the agrarian economy and rural society of Mughal India.

Forests And Tribes (Mughal)

Forests were a significant part of the landscape in Mughal India, coexisting with settled agricultural areas. People living in forests, often tribal communities, had different ways of life from those in settled villages, and their relationship with the state and settled society was complex.

Beyond Settled Villages

While the majority of the population lived in settled agricultural villages, significant areas were covered by forests.
People living in these forests included tribal communities who practiced shifting cultivation (jhum), hunted, gathered forest produce, and sometimes engaged in pastoralism.
Their economies and social structures were distinct from settled agrarian society.

Relationship with the State and Settled Society:

Mughal records sometimes refer to forest dwellers as 'jungli' (wild), reflecting the perspective of settled society.
The Mughal state sought to control forest areas, both for strategic reasons (routes, timber) and for extracting resources (timber, forest produce, elephants).
Tribute was sometimes demanded from tribal chiefs.
Interactions between forest dwellers and settled villagers involved trade (exchange of forest produce for grains and other goods), but also sometimes conflict or raiding.
Forest dwellers could also be recruited into the Mughal army, often serving as trackers or guides.

Inroads Into Forests

The expansion of agriculture during the Mughal period led to the clearing of some forest areas for cultivation.
The state also made inroads into forests for logging (e.g., for shipbuilding, construction) and hunting (royal hunting expeditions).
This increasing interaction and intrusion into forest areas led to changes in the lives of tribal communities, sometimes forcing them to adapt, migrate, or resist.

Mughal sources, including chronicles and accounts by travellers, provide glimpses into the presence of forests and tribal communities, highlighting the diversity of life and economies that existed beyond the settled agricultural heartlands of the empire.

The Zamindars (Mughal)

Zamindars were powerful intermediaries in the Mughal agrarian system. They played a crucial role in revenue collection and exercised considerable influence over the rural population.

Who were the Zamindars?

The term 'Zamindar' was used to refer to a wide range of local potentates who controlled land and collected revenue. They were not necessarily landowners in the sense of private property as understood today.
They included village headmen, local chieftains who had been rulers before the Mughals, and hereditary landlords.
Their authority was often hereditary and based on custom and control over local resources and people.

Role in Revenue Collection:

Zamindars collected land revenue from the peasants on behalf of the Mughal state or the Jagirdars.
They received a share of the revenue collected as their remuneration.
This system was convenient for the state as it did not have the administrative capacity to collect revenue directly from every single peasant.

Influence and Power:

Zamindars controlled local military forces, often consisting of cavalry and infantry.
They exercised control over villages and peasants in their areas.
They mediated between the state and the peasantry.
Zamindars could be loyal supporters of the Mughal state, assisting in administration and military campaigns, or they could become powerful enough to resist state authority and even rebel.

Relationship with the State:

The Mughal state sought to control the Zamindars, ensuring they collected the correct amount of revenue and did not become independent.
However, Zamindars were also integrated into the Mughal hierarchy. Many Zamindars, particularly powerful chieftains, were given Mansabs and appointed to positions in the Mughal administration and army.

Zamindars were a key component of the Mughal agrarian structure, forming a layer of intermediaries between the state and the peasantry. Their power and influence were significant and contributed to both the stability and the eventual fragmentation of the empire.

Land Revenue System (Mughal)

The Mughal land revenue system was the administrative machinery for assessing and collecting land revenue, the backbone of the empire's finances. It was a complex system that evolved over time, particularly refined during the reign of Akbar.

Objectives of the Revenue System:

To ensure a stable and predictable source of income for the state to maintain the army, administration, and court.
To ensure a certain level of control over the rural economy.
To some extent, to ensure fairness in assessment for the peasantry (though this was not always achieved in practice).

Key Features:

Assessment methods: Various methods were used, including:
- Zabt: A system of assessment based on the survey and measurement of land, classification of land quality, and fixed revenue rates based on average yields and prices over a period. This was considered the most accurate method and was implemented in the core areas of the empire.
- Ghalla Bakhshi / Batai: Share of the crop. The state collected a share of the actual harvest.
- Nasaq: A rough assessment based on past estimates or averages.
Revenue rate: The state's demand was usually fixed as a share of the produce, often around 1/3rd, but it could vary.
Collection: Revenue was collected from the peasants by village officials (like the patwari and headman) and Zamindars, who passed it on to the state officials or Jagirdars.
Revenue paid in cash or kind: While payment in cash was preferred, especially for cash crops, payment in kind was also allowed in some areas or for certain crops.

Role of Officials and Intermediaries:

Imperial officials (Diwans, Amils) were responsible for overseeing revenue administration.
Jagirdars were assigned the right to collect revenue from their jagirs.
Zamindars were the key intermediaries at the local level, collecting revenue from the peasants.

Impact of the Revenue System:

Provided the financial resources for the empire's power and grandeur.
Increased commercialisation of agriculture as peasants were encouraged to grow cash crops for sale to pay revenue in cash.
While the Zabt system aimed for fairness, the actual burden on the peasantry could be heavy, leading to rural distress and sometimes rebellions.
The system of Jagirs and the role of Zamindars introduced layers of intermediaries between the state and the peasant, creating potential for exploitation.

The Mughal land revenue system was a complex administrative and economic framework that significantly shaped rural society and the relationship between the state and the peasantry, and its effectiveness played a crucial role in the empire's fortunes.

The Flow Of Silver (Mughal Economy)

The Mughal Empire was a major participant in global trade networks, and a significant feature of its economy was the large inflow of silver into the subcontinent. This inflow was a consequence of India's active trade relations with other parts of the world.

India's Role in Global Trade:

India was known for exporting valuable goods, including textiles (cotton, silk), spices, indigo, opium, and various craft products.
Demand for Indian goods in Europe, West Asia, and Southeast Asia was high.
However, India did not have significant exports that other regions needed in return in equal value.
As a result, India had a favourable balance of trade – its exports exceeded its imports.

Inflow of Silver:

To pay for the Indian goods they imported, European trading companies (Portuguese, Dutch, English, French) and other foreign merchants had to bring in large amounts of silver and gold into India.
Silver, primarily sourced from mines in the Americas (controlled by Spain and Portugal), flowed into India through various trade routes.

Impact of Silver Inflow:

Monetisation of the Economy: The large influx of silver led to an increase in the circulation of silver coins (rupiya). This facilitated the monetisation of the economy, making it easier to conduct transactions and collect revenue in cash.
Growth of Urban Centres and Markets: A monetised economy supported the growth of towns, cities, and markets.
Commercialisation of Agriculture: Peasants were increasingly encouraged to grow cash crops for sale to earn cash to pay revenue and buy goods, leading to commercialisation of agriculture.
Price changes: The increase in the money supply could have contributed to price inflation over time.
Source of state wealth: The state collected revenue in cash (facilitated by silver availability), which provided it with financial flexibility.

The inflow of silver was a significant feature of the Mughal economy, driven by India's strong position in global trade. It had profound impacts on the monetisation of the economy, urban growth, and the commercialisation of agriculture during this period.