Kingdoms in the South (Vijayanagara)

An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara

Vijayanagara, meaning 'City of Victory', was the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire, which was established in the 14th century in South India. The empire ruled for over three centuries (c. 1336-1646 CE) and was one of the most prominent powers in the Deccan region. Its capital city, located on the banks of the River Tungabhadra (near modern Hampi in Karnataka), was a grand imperial centre.

The city of Vijayanagara was renowned for its vast size, magnificent architecture, thriving markets, and impressive fortifications. Its grandeur is described in the accounts of foreign travellers who visited the city at its peak.

The Discovery Of Hampi

The ruins of the city of Vijayanagara, now known as Hampi, were largely abandoned after the decline of the empire in the 16th century. Its historical significance was rediscovered through the efforts of archaeologists and historians starting in the 19th century.

• The site was first brought to light by Colonel Colin Mackenzie in 1800 (as discussed in the chapter on Medieval Indian Sources, Section I4).
• Subsequent surveys and excavations by archaeologists, along with the study of inscriptions and accounts by foreign travellers (like Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz), helped to identify the ruins as the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire and reconstruct its history.
• Hampi is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The archaeological exploration of Hampi has provided extensive information about the urban layout, architecture, water management, fortifications, and different sectors of the city, revealing the scale and complexity of the imperial capital.

Rayas, Nayakas And Sultans (Vijayanagara)

The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled by a succession of dynasties, collectively known as the 'Rayas'. It was a powerful state that interacted with other kingdoms in the Deccan, particularly the Sultanates that emerged after the decline of the Bahmani kingdom.

Rise To Power

• The Cholas had been rulers in South India since the Sangam period, but their power declined after the 3rd century CE.
• In the mid-9th century CE, Vijayalaya, a chief from the Uraiyur region (a subordinate of the Pallava kings), captured the delta region from the Muttaraiyar (subordinates of the Pallavas).
• He established the town of Thanjavur and built a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
• Vijayalaya's successors expanded the kingdom, conquering neighboring territories from the Pallavas and the Pandyas.
• The Chola Empire reached its peak under powerful rulers like Rajaraja I (ruled c. 985-1014 CE) and his son Rajendra I (ruled c. 1014-1044 CE).
• Rajaraja I established a strong administration and expanded the empire through conquests.
• Rajendra I not only continued his father's expansionist policies but also led a military expedition to North India (reaching the Ganga valley) and a naval expedition to Southeast Asia (conquering territories in Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of modern Indonesia and Malaysia).

*(Image shows a map illustrating the territorial extent of the Chola Empire under Rajaraja I or Rajendra I)*

Kings And Traders

• The prosperity of the Vijayanagara Empire was based on its flourishing agricultural economy and extensive trade, both internal and external.
• Vijayanagara was a major centre for the trade of spices, textiles, gems, and other goods.
• The empire was particularly known for the trade in horses, which were essential for the military strength of the Deccan rulers. Horses were imported in large numbers, often through maritime trade.
• The Vijayanagara rulers (Rayas) actively participated in and controlled trade, deriving significant revenue from it.

The Apogee And Decline Of The Empire

• The Vijayanagara Empire reached its zenith under the Tuluva dynasty, particularly during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509-1529 CE).
• Krishnadeva Raya was a brilliant military commander, administrator, and scholar. He expanded the empire, defeated rival kingdoms, and was a great patron of art, literature, and architecture. His reign is considered the golden age of the empire.
• After Krishnadeva Raya's death, the empire faced increasing pressure from the Deccan Sultanates.
• In 1565, the Vijayanagara army was decisively defeated by the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar) in the Battle of Talikota (or Rakshasi-Tangadi).
• This battle led to the sacking and destruction of the city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) and the decline of the empire, although the Aravidu dynasty continued to rule from other locations for another century.

The Rayas And The Nayakas

• The Vijayanagara rulers (Rayas) appointed military chiefs called Nayakas (also known as Palaiyakkarars in Tamil region) to administer territories (amaram).
• The Nayakas collected revenue from their territories and maintained troops, which they provided to the Raya when needed.
• The Nayakas often exercised considerable power and influence in their regions.
• Over time, some Nayakas became semi-independent and challenged the authority of the central Vijayanagara ruler.
• The relationship between the Rayas and the Nayakas was a key feature of the Vijayanagara administration, contributing to both the empire's military strength and, eventually, its fragmentation.

The history of Vijayanagara is a tale of a powerful empire, its prominent rulers, its interactions with neighbouring states (Sultans), its thriving economy based on agriculture and trade (including horse trade), and its administrative structure involving Rayas and powerful Nayakas, culminating in its dramatic defeat and the sacking of its magnificent capital.

Vijayanagara The Capital And Its Environs

The city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) was built on a grand scale, reflecting its status as an imperial capital. Its location, fortifications, water resources, and distinct sectors reveal much about its planning and importance.

Geographical Location:

• The city was strategically located on the banks of the River Tungabhadra.
• The surrounding landscape was rocky and hilly, providing natural fortifications.
• The region was relatively arid, making water management crucial.

Water Resources

• Ensuring a reliable water supply for the large urban population, agriculture, and other needs was a major challenge in the semi-arid environment of Hampi.
• The city had an extensive and sophisticated water harvesting and supply system.
• Water was drawn from the Tungabhadra river and also collected through reservoirs and channels.
• Notable examples include:
  • Kamalapuram Tank: A large tank built to store water, from which water was conveyed to the Royal Centre and Sacred Centre through channels.
  • Hiriya Canal: One of the most prominent canals, drawing water from the Tungabhadra river and irrigating agricultural fields near the city walls.
• Aqueducts and channels were used to distribute water to different parts of the city.
• This elaborate system highlights the engineering skills and the importance placed on water management by the Vijayanagara rulers.

*(Image shows a photograph of the remains of an ancient water channel or reservoir in Hampi)*

Fortifications And Roads

• The city was heavily fortified. Abdur Razzaq, the Persian ambassador, described the city as having seven lines of fortifications, enclosing not just the urban core but also agricultural lands and forests.
• The walls were built of stone and used a wedge-shaped structure (without mortar) held together by interlocking stones.
• Roads connected different parts of the city and extended outwards, linking the capital to other parts of the empire. These were important for movement of people, goods, and the army.

The Urban Core

• The city was divided into several distinct sectors, including the Royal Centre, the Sacred Centre, and the Urban Core (residential areas and markets).
• The Urban Core included residential areas for people from different social and occupational groups.
• Evidence suggests the presence of bustling markets where goods were traded. Foreign travellers described the abundance of goods and the lively atmosphere in the markets.
• Archaeological finds in the urban core include remains of houses (often modest compared to royal/religious structures), pottery, coins, and artifacts related to daily life and crafts.

The city of Vijayanagara, with its strategic location, impressive fortifications, elaborate water management system, and distinct functional zones, reflects the scale and complexity of the imperial capital and the administrative and engineering capabilities of the Vijayanagara rulers.

The Royal Centre (Vijayanagara)

The Royal Centre at Vijayanagara was the sector of the city where the imperial power resided and functioned. It contained palaces, administrative buildings, and structures related to royal ceremonies and courtly life. Archaeological excavations in this area provide insights into the life and activities of the rulers and the court.

Location and Features:

• The Royal Centre was located in the southwestern part of the city.
• It was one of the most densely populated areas, with numerous structures.
• While many structures were secular (palaces, administrative buildings), temples and sacred structures were also present within this sector.

The Mahanavami Dibba

• One of the most prominent structures in the Royal Centre is the Mahanavami Dibba.
• It is a large platform, composed of multiple tiers, with a massive base.
• Archaeologists believe it was used for ceremonies related to the Mahanavami festival (also known as Navaratri or Dussehra in different parts of India).
• Foreign travellers like Domingo Paes described grand ceremonies held on this platform during the festival, including royal processions, military displays, elephant parades, and wrestling matches.
• The base of the platform is covered with intricate carvings depicting various scenes, including processions, animals, dancers, and musicians. These carvings provide valuable visual information about the life, customs, and ceremonies of the Vijayanagara period.

*(Image shows a photograph of the Mahanavami Dibba platform, highlighting its tiered structure and the carvings on the base)*

Other Buildings In The Royal Centre

• The Royal Centre contained several other important structures, including:
  • Palaces: Remains of royal residences. Unlike grand monumental palaces found in some other empires, the palaces at Vijayanagara are often less imposing externally, though they contained elaborate interiors (now lost).
  • Audience halls: Structures used for receiving visitors or holding court.
  • Administrative buildings: Structures related to government functions.
  • Lotus Mahal: A unique structure with arched corridors and lotus-shaped arches, likely used for council meetings or as a recreational area for the royal family.
  • Elephant Stables: A long building with domed chambers, used to house the royal elephants.
  • Temples: Several temples were located within or near the Royal Centre, indicating the close relationship between the state and religious institutions.

*(Image shows a photograph of the Lotus Mahal or the Elephant Stables at Hampi)*

The Royal Centre was the heart of the Vijayanagara state, showcasing the power, wealth, and ceremonial life of the rulers. Archaeological studies of this sector provide crucial evidence for understanding the political and social organisation of the empire.

The Sacred Centre (Vijayanagara)

The Sacred Centre at Vijayanagara was the sector of the city dominated by temples and religious structures. Its location and the presence of numerous temples highlight the importance of religion in the life of the city and the empire.

Choosing A Capital

• The choice of the Vijayanagara site as the capital was partly influenced by the presence of sacred hills and the Virupaksha temple, dedicated to Shiva. The local deity, Pampa, was considered a form of the goddess Parvati, consort of Virupaksha.
• The rulers of Vijayanagara saw themselves as ruling on behalf of the deity Virupaksha.
• This connection to sacred sites and deities added legitimacy to their rule.

Location and Features:

• The Sacred Centre was located in the northern part of the city, along the banks of the Tungabhadra river, close to the rocky hills that were associated with sacred traditions.
• It contains a large number of temples, ranging from small shrines to large temple complexes.
• The most prominent temples include the Virupaksha Temple (one of the oldest and most important) and the Vittala Temple (known for its musical pillars and stone chariot).
• Roads lined with bazaars (markets) connected the temples, serving pilgrims and visitors.

Gopurams And Mandapas

• Vijayanagara temple architecture is characterised by certain features:
  • Gopurams: Towering, elaborate gateways at the entrance of temple complexes. They became increasingly tall and decorated during the Vijayanagara period, serving as prominent landmarks.
  • Mandapas: Large pillared halls within the temple complexes. Used for various purposes, including rituals, assemblies, and cultural performances. Many mandapas feature intricately carved pillars.
• The construction of these grand structures reflects the wealth of the empire, the patronage of the rulers and wealthy merchants, and the importance of religious institutions.

*(Image shows a photograph of a large Gopuram or a detailed view of a pillared Mandapa from a temple in Hampi)*

The Sacred Centre was a vibrant hub of religious activity, pilgrimage, and cultural life, and its architecture reflects the religious devotion and artistic achievements of the Vijayanagara period.

Plotting Palaces, Temples And Bazaars (Vijayanagara)

Archaeologists and historians create maps and plans of Vijayanagara (Hampi) by carefully plotting the location and layout of different structures found during excavation and surveys. This process helps in understanding the city's organisation and the spatial relationships between its different components (palaces, temples, markets, residential areas, etc.).

Mapping the City:

• Initial mapping was done by early surveyors like Colin Mackenzie.
• Modern archaeological methods use detailed surveys, mapping techniques, and remote sensing to create precise plans of the entire site and its various sectors.
• Excavations help uncover the foundation plans and remains of buried structures.

Interpreting Spatial Organisation:

• Plotting the location of palaces, temples, and bazaars reveals the distinct zoning of the city into Royal, Sacred, and Urban/Market centres.
• It shows how these centres were interconnected by roads and how they related to the natural landscape (river, hills).
• The concentration of palaces in the Royal Centre, temples in the Sacred Centre, and markets along the main roads and near the temples highlights the functional organisation of the city.
• The presence of residential areas (Urban Core) near the markets and craft workshops indicates the areas where people lived and worked.

*(Image shows a plan or map of the excavated site of Hampi, indicating the locations of the Royal Centre, Sacred Centre, Urban Core, major temples, palaces, roads, and possibly water bodies)*

Plotting the city's features helps historians understand:

• The priorities of the city planners and rulers (e.g., importance of defence, religion, royal power, water supply).
• The functional divisions of the urban space.
• The movement patterns of people and goods within the city.
• The relationship between different social and functional groups.

By creating and studying these detailed plans, historians gain a visual and spatial understanding of the magnificent imperial capital of Vijayanagara.