Tribes, Nomads, and Settled Communities (Medieval)

Who Were Tribal People (Medieval context)

In medieval India, society was characterised by both settled, agriculture-based communities, often structured around the varna and jati system, and populations living in other ways, including tribal people. Tribal people were communities who did not typically follow the social norms and structures of the Brahmanical varna system.

Characteristics of Tribal Societies (General Medieval Context):

• Lived in diverse habitats: Tribes lived in forests, hills, deserts, and other areas, often distinct from settled agricultural villages.
• Relied on varied subsistence methods: Their economies were based on practices like shifting cultivation (jhum), hunting-gathering, pastoralism, and sometimes settled agriculture in specific areas.
• Kinship-based: Tribes were often organised into clans or families, with strong kinship bonds forming the basis of their social structure.
• Did not follow rigid varna/jati system: While some internal hierarchies existed, they generally did not adhere to the Brahmanical varna hierarchy.
• Often had communal ownership of land and resources.
• Cultural distinctiveness: Had their own unique languages, customs, traditions, and religious beliefs, often distinct from those of settled communities.

Interactions with Settled Society and State:

• Tribal societies were not isolated from settled communities or the state. They interacted through trade (exchanging forest produce for grains or other goods).
• Sometimes, tribal chiefs became powerful and were integrated into the state system (e.g., as military leaders or regional rulers, as seen with some Rajput groups or later with the Gonds and Ahoms).
• The state often sought to control forest areas and tribal populations for resources (timber, elephants) or for strategic reasons, sometimes leading to conflict.
• Processes of interaction and integration occurred, where some tribal groups gradually adopted aspects of settled life and were sometimes incorporated into the jati system.

Tribal people represented diverse ways of life and social organisation existing alongside the dominant agrarian and varna-based society of medieval India. Their histories are often not as well-documented in written chronicles but can be traced through archaeological evidence, ethnographic studies, and some historical references.

How Nomads And Mobile People Lived (Medieval context)

Besides settled villagers and forest-dwelling tribes, medieval India also had various communities who were nomadic, meaning they moved from place to place as part of their livelihood. These mobile people played specific roles in the economy and society.

Types of Nomadic and Mobile People:

• Pastoral nomads: Moved with their herds of cattle, sheep, goats, or camels in search of pastures. They often followed seasonal migration routes. Example: Banjaras (cattle traders and carriers), Gaddis (shepherds in Himalayas).
• Trading nomads: Moved from place to place with goods for sale. Banjaras were also important in transporting grains and other goods over long distances.
• Craftspersons and entertainers: Some craftspeople (e.g., metal workers, basket makers) or entertainers (e.g., acrobats, dancers, storytellers) were also mobile, moving to different villages or towns to sell their goods or perform their services.

*(Image shows an illustration or painting depicting a group of Banjaras with their oxen or camels laden with goods, perhaps travelling or resting)*

Role in Economy:

• Nomadic traders, like the Banjaras, played a crucial role in connecting different regions and facilitating trade between villages and towns, especially for bulk goods like grains.
• Pastoral nomads facilitated the exchange of animal products (wool, milk, ghee) and sometimes provided animals for transport.
• Mobile craftspersons and entertainers provided services to dispersed populations.

Interaction with Settled Communities:

• Nomadic groups interacted with settled communities through trade and exchange.
• Their movements and seasonal patterns were often well-known to settled populations.
• The state sometimes tried to regulate the movements and activities of nomadic groups, particularly for taxation or security reasons.

Nomadic and mobile people were an integral part of the medieval Indian society and economy, contributing to trade, service provision, and maintaining connections across different regions.

Changing Society: New Castes And Hierarchies (Medieval context)

The medieval period was a time of dynamic social change in India. The varna system, while remaining a theoretical framework, interacted with the evolving system of jatis, leading to the emergence of new castes, new hierarchies, and shifts in social status for various groups.

Growth and Proliferation of Jatis:

• The number of jatis increased significantly during the medieval period.
• New jatis were formed due to:
  • New occupations: As the economy diversified with new crafts and activities, new occupational groups emerged and were often organised into jatis.
  • Integration of tribal and foreign groups: Tribal communities that gradually adopted settled agriculture or specific occupations were often integrated into the jati system, sometimes as Shudras or new specific jatis. Similarly, groups that came from outside the subcontinent and settled in India (e.g., various groups after the decline of the Mauryan Empire, later various groups who came with Turkic and Mughal rulers) were also often absorbed into the jati system, sometimes gaining status based on their power or occupation.

Shifts in Hierarchy:

• The hierarchy among jatis was not fixed forever. The status of a jati could rise or fall over time based on factors such as:
  • Economic power: Accumulating wealth through trade, agriculture, or crafts could lead to a rise in social status.
  • Political power: Gaining political influence or control over territory could lead to recognition as a higher jati or even claiming Kshatriya status (e.g., the rise of certain Rajput groups).
  • Adoption of new customs: Adopting customs and practices (e.g., related to marriage, diet) of higher castes in an attempt to raise one's status (Sanskritisation).

Varna and Jati Interaction:

• The varna system provided a broad theoretical framework (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras).
• Jatis were the actual social units that people belonged to and interacted within. A varna could encompass numerous jatis.
• The relationship between varna and jati was complex. While jatis were often theoretically linked to varnas, the actual hierarchy and status dynamics among jatis were influenced by various factors beyond the varna framework.

The medieval period was characterised by a fluid social structure based on the complex and changing system of jatis, with continuous processes of adaptation, assimilation, and negotiation of status and hierarchy.

A Closer Look (Medieval Tribes)

Focusing on specific tribal groups provides a more concrete understanding of their ways of life, social organisation, and interactions with settled communities and the state during the medieval period.

The Gonds

• The Gonds were a major tribal group who lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana (modern Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh).
• They practiced shifting cultivation (jhum) and also engaged in hunting-gathering.
• They were organised into clans, and each clan had its own raja or chief.
• In the 16th century, the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga (near Jabalpur) became powerful. It was a wealthy state that traded wild elephants with other kingdoms.
• The administrative system of the Garha Katanga kingdom became somewhat centralised. The kingdom was divided into 'garhs', each controlled by a specific Gond clan. Each garh was further divided into units of 84 villages (chaurasi) and then into units of 12 villages (barhots).
• The Garha Katanga kingdom was eventually conquered by the Mughals under Akbar. The Mughals granted the remaining part of the kingdom as a jagir to Bir Narain's uncle, marking a process of integration into the Mughal system.
• The rise of the Gonds from a tribal community to a powerful kingdom with a degree of centralised administration illustrates the dynamic nature of tribal societies and their interaction with larger states.

The Ahoms

• The Ahoms were a tribal group who migrated to the Brahmaputra valley (modern Assam) from Myanmar in the 13th century.
• They established a kingdom and gradually expanded their territory in the Brahmaputra valley.
• They subdued the local tribal communities and built a large state.
• They adopted settled agriculture. They also used unique methods like irrigating fields using artificial canals.
• The Ahom state was based on forced labour. People who were forced to work for the state were called 'paiks'.
• Ahom society was organised into clans or 'khels', with each khel often controlling several villages.
• Ahoms initially worshipped their own tribal gods but gradually adopted Brahmanical Hinduism. However, tribal beliefs and practices did not completely disappear.
• The Ahoms maintained a strong army and successfully resisted Mughal attempts to conquer their kingdom for a long time.
• The Ahom kingdom was known for its system of chronicles called 'buranjis', written in Ahom and later Assamese languages.

*(Image shows a map of medieval India highlighting the regions associated with the Gond kingdoms or the Ahom kingdom)*

The examples of the Gonds and Ahoms show that tribal societies in medieval India were not static. They underwent processes of political development, social change, and integration with neighbouring cultures and states, sometimes forming powerful kingdoms that rivalled the larger empires.

Conclusion (Tribes, Nomads)

The medieval period in India was characterised by a complex and dynamic social landscape that included not only the settled, agrarian, and varna/jati-based society but also diverse tribal and nomadic communities. These groups interacted with each other and with the state, contributing to the economic, social, and political fabric of the era.

Summary:

• Settled Communities: The majority of the population lived in villages and towns, primarily engaged in agriculture, crafts, and trade. Their social organisation was influenced by the varna and jati system, although hierarchies and status were also shaped by economic and political factors.
• Tribal People: Lived in forests and other areas, relying on varied subsistence methods like shifting cultivation and hunting-gathering. They had distinct social structures (kinship-based) and cultures, generally outside the varna system. Some tribal groups underwent significant political development and formed kingdoms (Gonds, Ahoms).
• Nomadic and Mobile People: Moved from place to place, including pastoralists (herders) and traders (like Banjaras) and mobile craftspersons/entertainers. They played important roles in facilitating trade, providing services, and connecting different regions.

Interactions and Changes:

• Interaction between these groups was common through trade, cultural exchange, and sometimes conflict.
• Processes of integration and assimilation occurred, with some tribal and nomadic groups gradually adopting settled life or being incorporated into the jati system.
• Conversely, settled society and the state made inroads into forest areas, affecting tribal communities.
• The dynamic interplay between these different ways of life contributed to the ever-changing social and economic landscape of medieval India.

Understanding medieval Indian society requires appreciating the co-existence and interaction of these diverse communities and recognizing that the history of India is not solely the history of its empires and settled populations.