Impact on Tribal Societies and Forests (Early Colonial Period)

How Did Tribal Groups Live? (Context)

Before the arrival of colonial rule, tribal groups in India lived in diverse ways, adapted to their specific environments, often in forest areas or hills. Their livelihoods were closely connected to the resources available in their habitats.

Diversity in Tribal Livelihoods:

Tribal groups were not a single homogenous community. They practiced different methods of subsistence and had varied social organisations.

Some Were Jhum Cultivators

Many tribal groups practiced shifting cultivation, also known as jhum cultivation (or slash-and-burn agriculture).
This involved clearing a patch of forest by cutting trees and burning the vegetation. The ash provided nutrients to the soil.
Crops were grown on this patch for a few years.
When the soil fertility declined, the cultivators moved to a new patch of forest and repeated the process, allowing the previous patch to regenerate.
Jhum cultivation required forest land and mobility.
Example: Practised in parts of Northeast India, Central India.

Some Were Hunters And Gatherers

Some tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce (fruits, roots, honey, medicinal plants).
They were nomadic or semi-nomadic, moving within their traditional territories in search of resources.
Example: Khonds in Odisha.

Some Herded Animals

Many tribal groups were pastoralists, moving with their herds of animals (cattle, sheep, goats) in search of pastures.
Their livelihoods depended on animals and their products.
Example: Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh, Van Gujjars of the Himalayas.

Some Took To Settled Cultivation

Over time, some tribal groups had adopted settled agriculture, cultivating land in one place year after year.
They might have used ploughs and developed land rights.
Example: Gonds and Santhals (in some areas) had started settled cultivation before colonial rule.

These different ways of life reflected the diverse adaptations of tribal groups to various ecological conditions across India.

How Did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives? (Early impact)

Colonial rule brought significant changes to the lives of tribal groups and their relationship with forests. The policies of the English East India Company and later the British government had a profound and often disruptive impact on their traditional ways of life and livelihoods.

Impacts of Colonial Rule on Tribal Lives:

Loss of traditional rights: Tribal people had traditional rights to use forest resources (wood, forest produce, land for cultivation). Colonial forest laws restricted these rights.
Disruption of traditional livelihoods: Policies affected jhum cultivation, access to forest produce, and movement of pastoralists.
Forced labour: Tribal people were often forced to work for the forest department or contractors for low wages.
Exploitation by traders and moneylenders: Tribal people became dependent on traders for forest produce and faced exploitation from moneylenders.

What Happened To Tribal Chiefs?

Before colonial rule, tribal chiefs often had authority over their territories and managed local affairs.
Under colonial rule, the British government took over the administration of forest areas and tribal regions.
Tribal chiefs lost much of their administrative power and authority. They were often forced to follow British regulations and pay taxes.
They were sometimes allowed to keep their land titles but were deprived of their traditional control over their people and territories. Their position was often reduced to that of intermediaries for the colonial government.

What Happened To The Shifting Cultivators?

The British viewed shifting cultivation as harmful (causing deforestation, making revenue collection difficult).
They wanted tribal groups to settle down and practice settled agriculture to make administration easier and increase land revenue collection.
Forest laws restricted jhum cultivation, forcing jhum cultivators to move to other areas, take up other occupations, or revolt.

Forest Laws And Their Impact

The British enacted Forest Acts (e.g., Indian Forest Act, 1865, 1878) to control forests, as they were a source of valuable timber (for railway construction, shipbuilding).
Forests were classified (e.g., Reserved Forests, Protected Forests, Village Forests). Reserved Forests were considered most valuable, and tribal access was severely restricted or banned.
Forest laws banned or restricted traditional practices like jhum cultivation, hunting, collection of forest produce (like wood, fruits, medicinal plants), and movement of animals in forests.
This directly affected the livelihoods and way of life of tribal communities who depended on forests.

The Problem With Trade

Traditional trade between tribal groups (forest produce) and settled communities (grains, goods) was often disrupted or controlled by colonial authorities and traders.
Traders and moneylenders often exploited tribal people, giving them loans at high interest rates and forcing them to sell forest produce at low prices, trapping them in a cycle of debt.

The Search For Work

With their traditional livelihoods disrupted by forest laws and restrictions, many tribal people were forced to look for new sources of income.
They often migrated to work in plantations (tea gardens in Assam, coal mines), construction sites, or as labourers in distant areas.
They often faced difficult working conditions, low wages, and exploitation by contractors.

The combined effects of colonial administration, forest laws, trade practices, and labour demands significantly altered the lives of tribal groups, often leading to their marginalisation, poverty, and sometimes provoking resistance and rebellions.

The Hoe And The Plough (Santhals context)

The transition from different forms of cultivation (like shifting cultivation using a hoe) to settled agriculture (using a plough) was a process that occurred in various tribal communities over time. The British colonial policy often favoured settled agriculture and the use of the plough, as it facilitated land measurement and revenue collection.

In The Hills Of Rajmahal

The Rajmahal hills in modern Jharkhand and West Bengal were inhabited by tribal communities, including the Paharias (who practiced shifting cultivation using hoes) and the Santhals (who practiced settled agriculture using ploughs).
The British administration encouraged the Santhals to settle in the foothills and clear forests for cultivation, viewing them as ideal settled cultivators.
They were given land grants in the Damin-i-Koh region.

The Santhals: Pioneer Settlers

The Santhals, who were already familiar with the plough, moved into the Rajmahal foothills in large numbers, clearing forests and practicing settled cultivation.
They were seen by the British as pioneer settlers who could bring the land under cultivation and increase revenue.
However, the Santhals also faced problems from settled Zamindars and moneylenders who encroached upon their lands and trapped them in debt.

The Accounts Of Buchanan

Francis Buchanan was a physician and traveller who surveyed various regions of Bengal (including areas in the Rajmahal hills) in the early 19th century on behalf of the British East India Company.
His accounts provide descriptions of the landscapes, people, and agricultural practices, including the Paharias (jhum cultivators) and the Santhals (settled cultivators).
Buchanan's descriptions, while valuable, also reflect the perspective of the Company, which favoured settled agriculture and viewed forest dwellers and shifting cultivators differently from settled peasants.
He described the Paharias as primitive and difficult to control, while portraying the Santhals more favourably as hardworking cultivators.

Illustration showing jhum cultivation (hoe) and settled cultivation (plough)

*(Image shows illustrations depicting shifting cultivation using a hoe and settled agriculture using a plough drawn by oxen)*

The contrast between the hoe (associated with shifting cultivation) and the plough (associated with settled agriculture) symbolised the differing livelihoods and the British attempt to transform tribal economies to fit into their administrative and revenue collection framework. This process, while encouraging settlement, also led to conflicts and displacement for tribal communities.