The Revolt of 1857

When People Rebel 1857 And After (Intro)

The Revolt of 1857 was a widespread rebellion against the rule of the English East India Company in India. It began as a mutiny by sepoys (Indian soldiers) of the Company's army but soon spread to various parts of North India and involved a large section of the civilian population. This event is a significant turning point in the history of British colonial rule in India.

The Revolt was a culmination of various grievances that had accumulated over a century of Company rule. It revealed the depth of resentment among different sections of Indian society against the Company's policies.

While the Revolt was ultimately suppressed by the British, it had a profound impact on the administration of India and the nature of British rule.

Policies And The People (Causes of 1857)

The Revolt of 1857 was caused by a combination of political, economic, social, and religious factors that had created widespread discontent among various sections of Indian society against the English East India Company's rule.

Political Causes:

• Annexation policies: The Company's aggressive annexation policies, such as the Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse (discussed in the previous chapter), led to the loss of power and authority for many Indian rulers and their nobility.

Nawabs Lose Their Power

• Many ruling families were displaced, their kingdoms annexed, and their traditional privileges and sources of income taken away.
• The Company's annexation of Awadh in 1856 on the pretext of misgovernment by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah caused widespread anger and resentment, as Awadh was a loyal state and its annexation affected the livelihood of many people, including soldiers in the Company's army who came from Awadh.

Economic Causes:

• High land revenue demands and rigid collection systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari) caused immense distress to peasants, often leading to loss of land and indebtedness to moneylenders.
• The decline of traditional Indian crafts and industries due to competition from British manufactured goods led to unemployment among artisans and weavers.

Social and Religious Causes:

• The British introduced several social reforms (e.g., abolition of Sati, allowing widow remarriage) which some sections of Indian society saw as interference in their traditional customs and religious practices.
• The fear of conversion to Christianity by Christian missionaries patronised by the British also caused apprehension.

Responses To Reforms

• Different groups reacted differently to the British reforms. While some welcomed them, others viewed them with suspicion and saw them as attempts to destroy Indian religion and culture.

The Peasants And The Sepoys

• The peasants, suffering under heavy taxation and loss of land, were deeply resentful of the Company's rule.
• The sepoys (Indian soldiers) in the Company's army were also affected by the grievances of the civilian population, as they came from the same rural background.
• Sepoys also had their own grievances:
  • Low salaries compared to British soldiers.
  • Lack of promotion opportunities for Indian officers.
  • Changes in service conditions, such as the General Service Enlistment Act of 1856, which required sepoys to be ready to serve overseas (which some saw as violating their religious beliefs about crossing the sea).
  • The new Enfield rifle cartridges were greased with animal fat (allegedly from cows and pigs), which offended the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim sepoys, who had to bite off the paper cover to load the rifle. This was the immediate trigger for the mutiny.

The widespread resentment among different sections of society, from dispossessed rulers and oppressed peasants to discontented sepoys, created fertile ground for a rebellion. The spark was provided by the controversial new rifle cartridges.

Through The Eyes Of The People (1857)

Understanding the Revolt of 1857 requires looking at the event not just from the perspective of the British administrators and historians but also through the eyes of the Indian people who participated in it or witnessed it. Their experiences and motivations are crucial for a complete picture.

Sources Reflecting Indian Perspectives:

• Accounts by Indian participants or witnesses: Diaries, letters, memoirs of rebels, ordinary people, or those who observed the events. Example: The autobiography of Sita Ram Pande, a sepoy who remained loyal to the British, provides insights into the sepoy's views and the outbreak of the mutiny.
• Proclamations and appeals issued by the rebels: Documents outlining the rebels' demands, grievances, and vision for the future (e.g., the Azamgarh Proclamation of 1857).
• Local records and traditions: Village accounts, folk songs, poems, and stories related to the Revolt. These reflect local memories and perspectives.
• Newspapers and journals published by Indians (where available and not suppressed).
• Later nationalist writings and histories: Interpretations of the Revolt by Indian nationalists (e.g., V.D. Savarkar's 'The Indian War of Independence 1857').

Motivations of the Rebels:

• The rebels were motivated by a combination of factors, which varied among different groups:
  • Sepoys: Grievances over pay, promotion, service conditions, and religious sentiments (cartridge issue).
  • Dispossessed rulers and nobles: Desire to regain their lost kingdoms, power, and status.
  • Peasants: Resentment against high taxes, rigid revenue systems, and exploitation by moneylenders.
  • Artisans and weavers: Suffering from the decline of traditional industries.
  • Religious leaders and scholars: Concerns about the perceived threat to Indian religions and cultural traditions from British reforms and missionary activities.
  • Ordinary people: Discontent with various aspects of British rule, including law and order, economic hardship, and perceived disrespect for their customs.

The rebels often united under the banner of restoring the authority of the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar in Delhi, symbolising a rejection of British rule and a desire for an alternative political order.

Studying the Revolt from the perspective of the Indian people reveals that it was not merely a 'sepoy mutiny' but a widespread popular rebellion with diverse causes and participants, representing a significant challenge to the Company's power.

A Mutiny Becomes A Popular Rebellion (1857)

The Revolt of 1857 began with the mutiny of sepoys in Meerut but quickly transformed into a widespread popular rebellion that spread to various parts of North India, involving civilians from different sections of society. This highlights the underlying discontent with British rule.

From Meerut To Delhi

• The mutiny started on 10 May 1857 in Meerut, a cantonment town near Delhi.
• Sepoys rebelled against their British officers, released imprisoned sepoys, and marched towards Delhi.
• They reached Delhi the next day and were joined by the sepoys stationed there.
• The sepoys proclaimed the aging Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader, appealing to him to lead the rebellion against the British.
• The rebels captured Delhi, which became the symbolic centre of the Revolt. The acceptance of Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader gave the rebellion a sense of legitimacy and unity under the old Mughal imperial symbol.

The Rebellion Spreads

• After Delhi fell to the rebels, the rebellion quickly spread to other areas.
• The mutiny of sepoys in other cantonments was often followed by local rebellions by civilians.
• Key centres of the Revolt included Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, and Gwalior.
• Leaders emerged in different areas:
  • Nana Sahib (adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II) in Kanpur.
  • Begum Hazrat Mahal (wife of the deposed Nawab of Awadh) in Lucknow.
  • Rani Lakshmibai in Jhansi.
  • Kunwar Singh (an old Zamindar) in Bihar.
• These leaders and rebels received support from peasants, Zamindars, religious leaders, and other sections of society who had grievances against British rule.

*(Image shows a map of North India highlighting the main centres of the 1857 Revolt like Delhi, Meerut, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi)*

The transformation of a sepoy mutiny into a widespread popular rebellion demonstrated that the discontent with British rule was not limited to the army but was prevalent among various sections of the population, who saw an opportunity to overthrow the foreign power.

The Company Fights Back (1857)

Alarmed by the scale and spread of the rebellion, the English East India Company mobilised its forces and launched a determined effort to suppress the Revolt. This involved military campaigns, strategic planning, and harsh measures against the rebels.

Suppression Efforts:

• The Company brought in reinforcements from Britain and also received support from loyal Indian troops and rulers.
• They planned campaigns to recapture key centres of the revolt, starting with Delhi.
• Delhi was recaptured by British forces in September 1857, after a prolonged siege. Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, tried, and exiled to Burma (Myanmar).
• Kanpur, Lucknow, and other rebel strongholds were also recaptured after fierce fighting.
• The British used superior military equipment, communication (telegraph), and logistics to coordinate their efforts.

Harsh Measures:

• The British adopted brutal measures to suppress the rebellion and punish the rebels.
• Villages suspected of supporting the rebels were often burnt down.
• Rebels and suspected sympathisers were executed, often publicly and in gruesome ways (e.g., blown from cannons) to terrorise the population.
• No distinction was often made between rebels and civilians, leading to widespread atrocities.

*(Image shows a historical painting or illustration depicting British soldiers in action during the suppression of the Revolt, or a scene of punishment of rebels)*

While the Company eventually succeeded in suppressing the Revolt by the end of 1858, the process was long and difficult, highlighting the scale of the challenge they faced. The suppression was marked by severe violence and retribution by the British.

Aftermath (1857)

The suppression of the Revolt of 1857 had far-reaching consequences for India and the nature of British rule. It marked a major shift in the administrative and political control of the country.

Changes After the Revolt:

• End of Company Rule: The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858, transferring the powers of the English East India Company to the British Crown. India came under the direct rule of the British government.
• Secretary of State for India: A member of the British cabinet was appointed as the Secretary of State for India, with a Council to advise him. The Governor-General of India (now also titled Viceroy) became the representative of the British Crown.
• Changes in the Army: The proportion of Indian soldiers in the army was reduced, and the number of European soldiers was increased. Key positions in the army were reserved for Europeans. Soldiers were recruited more from certain communities and regions (e.g., Punjabis, Gurkhas) who had remained loyal or helped suppress the Revolt.
• Policy towards Indian Rulers: The British adopted a new policy towards the Indian rulers. They assured the rulers that their territories would not be annexed in the future (Doctrine of Lapse was abolished). Rulers were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to adopted sons. However, they were still under the paramountcy of the British Crown. This policy aimed to secure the loyalty of the rulers as a buffer against future rebellions.
• Religious and Social Policies: The British decided not to interfere openly with the religious and social customs of the Indian population. They adopted a more cautious approach in implementing social reforms.
• Policies towards Muslims: The British suspected the Muslims of being responsible for the rebellion (as they had rallied around the Mughal emperor). They were viewed with suspicion and faced discrimination initially.
• Changes in Land Policy: Land and property of rebels were confiscated. Rights of landlords and Zamindars were strengthened in some areas.

The Revolt of 1857, though suppressed, exposed the fragilities of Company rule and forced the British to rethink their policies. It led to the end of the East India Company's rule and the beginning of direct British Raj, ushering in a new phase of colonial administration in India.

Awadh In Revolt (1857)

The province of Awadh (modern Uttar Pradesh) was a major centre of the Revolt of 1857 and played a significant role in the rebellion. The annexation of Awadh by the British East India Company in 1856 was a key factor that fuelled resentment and contributed to the outbreak of the Revolt.

“A Cherry That Will Drop Into Our Mouth One Day”

• Awadh had been a major kingdom under the Nawabs and was a source of wealth and soldiers for the Company.
• For decades, the British had been trying to control Awadh, seeing it as a valuable territory. Lord Dalhousie (Governor-General) described Awadh as "a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day".

The Annexation of Awadh:

• In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh on the pretext of alleged misgovernment by the Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah.
• The Nawab was deposed and sent into exile.
• This annexation was widely resented, as Awadh had been a loyal state under the British Subsidiary Alliance system.

“The Life Was Gone Out Of The Body”

• The annexation of Awadh had a profound impact on the people. The dethronement of the Nawab was seen as a loss of prestige and identity for the region.
• Contemporaries described the grief and sense of loss felt by the people. They felt as if "the life was gone out of the body" of Awadh.
• The annexation affected not just the Nawab and his court but also his army, officials, nobles, Zamindars, and common people who were dependent on the court for their livelihoods.

Resistance in Awadh:

• Awadh became a major centre of the Revolt in 1857.
• The rebellion in Awadh was widespread and involved various sections of the population, including sepoys (many of whom came from Awadh), peasants, Zamindars, and the common people, often rallying around Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the deposed Nawab.
• The resistance in Awadh was fierce and prolonged, requiring significant effort by the British to suppress it.

Firangi Raj And The End Of A World

• For the people of Awadh, the imposition of 'Firangi Raj' (Foreigner's rule) and the displacement of their Nawab felt like the end of their familiar world.
• They saw the British takeover as unjust and disruptive to their social and economic life.
• The grievances of the sepoys (many of whom were Awadhis) were intertwined with the civilian population's resentment over the annexation and the breakdown of the old order.

The annexation of Awadh and the subsequent widespread rebellion in the province highlight how the Company's aggressive policies and disregard for existing political structures and sentiments contributed significantly to the causes and intensity of the Revolt of 1857.

What The Rebels Wanted (1857)

Understanding the motivations and goals of the rebels in 1857 is complex, as the rebellion involved diverse groups with varying grievances. However, analysis of rebel proclamations and contemporary accounts provides insights into what they were fighting against and what they hoped to achieve.

Common Grievances Against British Rule:

• Resentment against the Company's policies (annexations, revenue systems, decline of traditional industries).
• Fear of interference in religion and social customs.
• Discontent among sepoys.

The Vision Of Unity

• The rebels often appealed for unity among different communities (Hindus and Muslims) against the common enemy (the British).
• Proclamations issued by rebel leaders often invoked both Hindu and Muslim religious sentiments and called upon people of all faiths to unite.
• The rallying around the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as a symbolic head represented a desire for a united front and a return to a pre-British political order.

Against The Symbols Of Oppression

• Rebels often targeted symbols of British authority and oppression.
• This included attacking Company officials, police stations, jails, treasuries, courts, and record offices.
• These actions were symbolic rejection of British administration and law.
• Rebels also sometimes attacked moneylenders and Zamindars who were seen as beneficiaries of or collaborators with the British system, particularly in rural areas affected by debt and high revenue demands.

The Search For Alternative Power

• The rebels aimed to overthrow British rule and establish an alternative form of governance.
• Rulers like Nana Sahib, Begum Hazrat Mahal, and Rani Lakshmibai took leadership roles in their respective regions, trying to restore their authority or establish new power structures.
• The appeal to the aging Mughal Emperor symbolised a desire to restore a traditional imperial system, but the power effectively rested with the rebel leaders and councils in the different centres.
• While there wasn't a single unified political vision for the future, the common goal was to end 'Firangi Raj' and replace it with some form of indigenous rule, often rooted in traditional authorities or emerging local leaders.

The demands and actions of the rebels reflect their diverse grievances against British rule and a shared desire to restore a political and social order free from foreign dominance, albeit with varying visions for the future.

Repression (1857)

After the initial shock of the rebellion, the British government and the East India Company mounted a strong and systematic campaign to suppress the Revolt of 1857. This repression was often brutal and involved military force, harsh punishments, and attempts to re-establish control.

Military Suppression:

• The British brought in fresh troops from Britain and also relied on regiments that had remained loyal and rulers who supported them.
• They systematically recaptured the key centres of the rebellion (Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, etc.) using superior military strategy, technology, and resources.
• Delhi was recaptured in September 1857 after fierce fighting.
• The British forces moved across North India, suppressing the rebellion in different regions.

Harsh Punishments:

• The British response was marked by severe retribution and harsh punishments for the rebels and the civilian population suspected of supporting them.
• Rebels were executed publicly, often in cruel ways (e.g., being blown from cannons) to terrorise the population and deter further resistance.
• Villages were burnt and property was confiscated.
• Thousands of people were killed during the suppression, with little regard for due process.

*(Image shows a historical painting or illustration depicting the suppression of the Revolt, possibly showing British troops in action, or a scene of public punishment)*

Aftermath of Repression:

• By the end of 1858, the major rebellion had been suppressed, although sporadic resistance continued for some time.
• The repression cemented British control over India but also left a legacy of bitterness and resentment.
• It led to the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown and a shift in British policy towards India, aiming at preventing future widespread rebellions while consolidating imperial control.

The brutal suppression of the Revolt of 1857 demonstrated the determination of the British to maintain their hold over India and highlighted the heavy cost of challenging colonial power, but it also inspired future generations of Indian nationalists.