Land Resources And Agriculture (India)

Land Use Categories

Land is a fundamental natural resource, serving as the base for all human activities, including agriculture, settlements, and industries. In India, land use is categorized based on its availability and the purposes for which it is utilized.

• Forest Area: Land covered by forests, crucial for ecological balance, biodiversity, and resource provision.
• Land Not Available for Cultivation: This category includes:
  • Barren and Unculturable Land: Land that is too arid, rocky, or infertile for cultivation.
  • Land Covered by Snow and Glaciers: Areas in the Himalayas that are perpetually covered by snow and ice.
  • Land Used for Non-Agricultural Purposes: Areas occupied by buildings, roads, railways, industries, and other infrastructure.
• Other Uncultivated Land (excluding fallow land):
• Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Areas used for grazing livestock.
• Land Under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves: Areas under fruit trees, etc., not included in the net sown area.
• Barren Land: Land left uncultivated for more than five years.
• Fallow Lands: Lands that are temporarily left uncultivated.
  • Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for one or more crop seasons but less than five years. Farmers may leave it fallow to restore fertility.
  • Fallow Lands other than Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for five or more consecutive crop seasons.
• Net Sown Area: The total area on which crops are sown and harvested in an agricultural year. If the same land is used for more than one crop in a year, it is counted only once in the net sown area.

Understanding these categories is essential for planning agricultural development and managing land resources effectively.

Land-Use Changes In India

India's land-use patterns have undergone significant changes over time, driven by population growth, economic development, urbanization, and industrialization.

• Increase in Non-Agricultural Uses: There has been a substantial increase in the area under non-agricultural uses due to rapid urbanization, industrial expansion, and infrastructure development (roads, railways, airports). This often comes at the expense of agricultural land and forest cover.
• Decline in Forest Cover (Relative): While afforestation efforts exist, the pressure from population growth and land demand for other uses has impacted forest cover in many regions, though forest cover has shown some recovery in recent years due to conservation efforts.
• Changes in Cropping Patterns: Shifts from subsistence farming to commercial farming, introduction of new crops, and changes in irrigation patterns have altered land use within agricultural areas. For instance, the Green Revolution led to increased cultivation of rice and wheat in specific regions.
• Degradation of Land: Increasing pressure on land has led to degradation of arable land through soil erosion, salinization, waterlogging, and chemical contamination, reducing its productivity.
• Impact of Policies: Government policies related to land ceiling, land reforms, forest conservation, and agricultural subsidies also influence land-use changes.

Common Property Resources

Common Property Resources (CPRs) are resources that are owned, managed, and utilized by a community, rather than by individuals or the state. These resources are collectively accessible to all members of a defined community.

• Examples: Village commons (grazing lands), forests (managed by local communities), ponds, tanks, riverbeds, common wells, burial grounds.
• Importance:
• Livelihoods: CPRs are crucial for the livelihoods of many rural communities, especially the poor and marginalized, providing fodder for livestock, fuel wood, minor forest produce, and water.
• Ecological Services: They contribute to maintaining local ecosystems, biodiversity, and water cycles.
• Social Cohesion: The management and use of CPRs often involve community cooperation and social norms, fostering social cohesion.
• Challenges: CPRs are increasingly under pressure due to population growth, increased demand, encroachment, and inadequate community management systems. Degradation of CPRs disproportionately affects the poor who depend on them.
• Conservation: Community-based management and conservation efforts are vital for the sustainability of CPRs.

Agricultural Land Use In India

India's land use is predominantly agricultural, with a significant portion of its geographical area dedicated to farming.

• Net Sown Area: India has a substantial net sown area, indicating the importance of agriculture. However, this area is not increasing significantly due to limitations of land availability and increasing non-agricultural uses.
• Cropped Area More Than Once: The intensity of cropping (area sown more than once in a year) varies widely. It is higher in irrigated areas with assured water supply (e.g., Punjab, Haryana) and lower in rain-fed or arid regions.
• Factors Influencing Land Use:
• Physical Factors: Climate (rainfall, temperature), soil type, topography (plains, hills, plateaus), availability of water.
• Economic Factors: Population pressure, demand for food grains and commercial crops, availability of capital, market access, profitability of different crops.
• Technological Factors: Irrigation facilities, availability of HYV seeds, mechanization, use of fertilizers and pesticides.
• Government Policies: Land reforms, subsidies, Minimum Support Prices (MSP), crop insurance.
• Regional Variations: Land use patterns vary significantly across India. Plains are dominated by intensive farming of rice and wheat, while hilly regions may have terraced farming or plantations, and arid regions are used for grazing or drought-resistant crops.

Cropping Seasons In India

India experiences distinct cropping seasons based on the monsoon patterns and temperature variations, allowing for multiple cropping cycles in many regions.

• Rabi Season:
• Sowing Period: October - December (winter).
• Harvesting Period: April - June (summer).
• Climate Requirements: Crops require a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening. Moderate temperature and relatively less rainfall are preferred.
• Major Crops: Wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard, potato.
• Major Producing Regions: Northern and north-western plains (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Rajasthan, MP).
• Kharif Season:
• Sowing Period: June - July (onset of monsoon).
• Harvesting Period: September - October (autumn).
• Climate Requirements: Crops require high temperatures and humidity with heavy rainfall throughout the season.
• Major Crops: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Groundnut, Tur (Arhar), Jute.
• Major Producing Regions: Widely cultivated across India, particularly in river basins and coastal plains.
• Zaid Season:
• Period: A short season between the Rabi and Kharif seasons, typically from March to June (summer).
• Climate Requirements: Crops need warm, dry weather.
• Major Crops: Watermelon, musk melon, cucumber, vegetables, and fodder crops. These are primarily grown in areas with access to irrigation.

Types Of Farming

India practices a variety of farming systems, ranging from traditional subsistence methods to modern commercial agriculture, influenced by factors like climate, soil, population density, and technological adoption.

• Subsistence Farming:
• Primitive Subsistence Agriculture: Includes Shifting Cultivation (Jhumming) and Nomadic Herding. Characterized by low yields, simple tools, family labour, and minimal surplus. Practiced in tropical forests and arid/mountainous regions.
• Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: Practiced in densely populated areas, focusing on maximizing yields from small plots through high labour input, HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation. Primarily for food grains like rice. Found in fertile plains and coastal areas.
• Commercial Farming:
• Commercial Grain Cultivation: Large-scale cultivation of grains like wheat and maize for the market. Highly mechanized. Found in regions with large plains and moderate climates.
• Mixed Farming: Combines crop cultivation with livestock rearing. Aims for diversification and stability.
• Plantation Agriculture: Cultivation of a single crop over a large area, involving capital-intensive methods and labour. Examples: Tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana. Practiced in tropical regions.
• Other Farming Types relevant to India:
• Dairy Farming: Raising cattle and buffaloes for milk and dairy products.
• Horticulture: Cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and medicinal plants.
• Organic Farming: Cultivation without the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or GMOs, relying on natural methods.

Foodgrains

Foodgrains form the staple diet of the Indian population and are crucial for national food security. They are broadly categorized into cereals and pulses.

Rice

Rice is the staple food crop of India and the world's second-largest producer. It is a Kharif crop requiring high temperatures, humidity, and rainfall.

• Climate: Needs temperatures above 25°C, high humidity, and annual rainfall over 100 cm. Can grow in areas with less rainfall with irrigation.
• Soil: Fine-grained, clayey or loamy soil that retains water.
• Major Producing States: West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Bihar, Haryana.
• Significance: Feeds over half of India's population.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop in India, primarily consumed in the northern and central parts. It is a Rabi crop.

• Climate: Requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine during ripening. Prefers moderate temperature (10-18°C during growth, 15-25°C at harvest) and moderate rainfall (50-75 cm).
• Soil: Well-drained loam or clayey-loam soil.
• Major Producing States: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh.
• Significance: A primary source of carbohydrates and protein in many regions.

Jowar

Jowar (Sorghum) is a major millet crop, important as both a food grain and fodder.

• Climate: Requires moderate temperature and rainfall, grown in areas with clayey soil.
• Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh.

Bajra

Bajra (Pearl Millet) is a hardy millet grown in drier regions.

• Climate: Grows well in sandy and shallow black soils with less rainfall.
• Major Producing States: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana.

Maize

Maize (Corn) is used for both human food and animal fodder. It is a Kharif crop but can be grown in Rabi with irrigation.

• Climate: Requires moderate temperature (21-27°C) and rainfall (50-100 cm).
• Soil: Well-drained fertile soil.
• Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka.

Pulses

Pulses (like `tur`, `urad`, `moong`, `masoor`, `gram`, `peas`) are a vital source of protein, especially for vegetarians. India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses globally.

• Characteristics: Leguminous crops that help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. They require less moisture compared to other food crops and are grown in rotation.
• Major Pulses: Gram (`Chana`) is the most important pulse grown in India, followed by Tur (`Arhar`).
• Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka.

Gram

Gram (`Chana`) is the most important pulse crop of India, predominantly grown in the Rabi season.

• Climate: Requires a cool, dry climate.
• Soil: Well-drained loam soil.
• Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh.

Tur (Arhar)

Tur (`Arhar`) is the second most important pulse crop in India.

• Climate: Grown in Kharif season, requires warm conditions and moderate rainfall.
• Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat.

Oilseeds

Oilseeds are crops grown for their edible seeds, which are crushed to extract oil. India is a major producer of various oilseeds.

Groundnut

Groundnut is a Kharif crop and the most important oilseed in India in terms of production and area.

• Climate: Requires warm and dry climate and adequate rainfall (50-75 cm) or irrigation. Prefers sandy and light-coloured loamy soil.
• Major Producing States: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

Rapeseed And Mustard

Rapeseed and Mustard are important Rabi oilseeds.

• Climate: Require cool climate and moderate rainfall.
• Soil: Well-drained loamy soil.
• Major Producing States: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.

Other Oilseeds

Includes crops like soybean, sunflower, castor seed, linseed, and cottonseed.

• Soybean: Primarily grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• Sunflower: Grown in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
• Castor Seed: Grown in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra.
• Linseed: Rabi crop grown in UP, MP, Bihar.
• Cottonseed: A by-product of the cotton textile industry, used for oil extraction.

Fibre Crops

Fibre crops are cultivated for their fibrous materials, which are used in various industries, particularly textiles.

Cotton

Cotton is a crucial fibre crop and a primary raw material for the textile industry. It is a Kharif crop.

• Climate: Requires high temperature (21-30°C), light rainfall or irrigation (50-80 cm), and bright sunshine during growth.
• Soil: Prefers well-drained loamy soil, especially the black cotton soils of the Deccan Plateau.
• Major Producing States: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan.

Jute

Jute is known as the 'golden fibre' and is used to make sacks, mats, ropes, yarn, and handicrafts.

• Climate: Requires high temperature (above 25°C) and heavy rainfall (above 100 cm) during growth.
• Soil: Prefers well-drained fertile lands in the flood plains of major rivers.
• Major Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya.

Other Crops

Beyond food grains and fibre crops, India cultivates a range of other important crops.

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a tropical and subtropical crop, serving as the main source of sugar, jaggery, and ethanol.

• Climate: Requires high temperature (21-27°C), rainfall (75-100 cm), and a frost-free climate for growth.
• Soil: Prefers deep loamy soil.
• Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab, Haryana. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer.

Tea

Tea is an important beverage crop, grown in the hilly areas of tropical and subtropical regions.

• Climate: Requires a tropical and subtropical climate with luxuriant rainfall (above 150 cm) distributed throughout the year. Needs warm (10°C to 30°C) and moist climate.
• Soil: Prefers well-drained, friable, and humus-rich soil, often found on gentle slopes.
• Major Producing States: Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala.

Coffee

Coffee is another important beverage crop, cultivated mainly in the plantation belt of the country.

• Climate: Requires warm and humid climate with annual rainfall between 150-250 cm. Temperature should be between 15°C and 28°C. Needs well-drained, loamy soil.
• Major Producing States: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.

Agricultural Development In India

Agricultural development in India has been a continuous process involving various reforms and strategies aimed at increasing productivity, ensuring food security, and improving the livelihoods of farmers.

• Green Revolution: The introduction of High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and improved irrigation techniques significantly boosted the production of wheat and rice, transforming India from a food-deficit to a food-surplus nation.
• Technological Reforms: Mechanization (tractors, harvesters), improved irrigation infrastructure (dams, canals, tube wells), use of HYV seeds, and advancements in agro-chemicals.
• Institutional Reforms:
• Land Reforms: Abolition of zamindari system, tenancy reforms, consolidation of landholdings, and land ceiling acts aimed at equitable land distribution.
• Credit Facilities: Establishment of cooperative banks, regional rural banks, and commercial banks to provide credit to farmers at reasonable interest rates.
• Support Services: Government provision of extension services, agricultural research and education, subsidies on inputs, and Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for key crops.
• Insurance: Crop insurance schemes to protect farmers against crop failure due to natural calamities.
• Diversification: Encouraging the cultivation of horticulture, floriculture, and other high-value crops to improve farmer incomes.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting organic farming, water conservation techniques (rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation), soil health management, and integrated pest management to ensure long-term sustainability.

Growth Of Agricultural Output And Technology

India has witnessed substantial growth in agricultural output and the adoption of technology over the decades, primarily driven by reforms and policy interventions.

• Increased Production: Thanks to the Green Revolution and subsequent technological advancements, India has achieved self-sufficiency in food grains and become a major producer of various other agricultural commodities.
• Technological Adoption:
• HYV Seeds: Widespread use of high-yielding varieties of rice, wheat, maize, and other crops.
• Fertilizers: Increased use of chemical fertilizers (urea, DAP, NPK), though promoting balanced use and organic alternatives is a focus.
• Irrigation: Expansion of irrigation networks through canals, tube wells, and government schemes like PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana).
• Mechanization: Increased use of tractors, power tillers, harvesters, and other farm machinery, especially in states with higher agricultural development.
• Pesticides and Herbicides: Used for pest and weed control, though there is a push towards integrated pest management (IPM) and organic methods.
• Modern Techniques: Adoption of precision farming, protected cultivation (greenhouses), drip and sprinkler irrigation, and information technology in agriculture.
• Challenges: Despite progress, there are challenges such as uneven adoption of technology across regions, fragmentation of landholdings, and the need for more investment in R&D for climate-resilient agriculture.

Problems Of Indian Agriculture

Indian agriculture, despite its progress, faces numerous persistent challenges that hinder its full potential and impact the livelihoods of millions of farmers.

Dependence On Erratic Monsoon

A significant portion of Indian agriculture is still rain-fed, making it highly dependent on the timely and adequate arrival of the monsoon. Erratic monsoons, characterized by delayed onset, uneven distribution, or insufficient rainfall, can lead to crop failures and widespread distress.

Low Productivity

Compared to global averages, India's agricultural productivity for many crops remains low. This is due to factors like small farm sizes, fragmented landholdings, limited adoption of modern technology in some regions, inadequate irrigation, poor soil health, and lack of access to quality inputs.

Constraints Of Financial Resources And Indebtedness

Many farmers, particularly small and marginal ones, lack adequate financial resources to invest in quality seeds, fertilizers, machinery, and irrigation. They often rely on borrowing from moneylenders at high interest rates, leading to indebtedness, which can trap them in a cycle of poverty, especially after crop failures.

Lack Of Land Reforms

While some land reforms have been implemented, their effectiveness has been limited in many areas. Issues like tenancy regulation, consolidation of fragmented landholdings, and distribution of surplus land to the landless remain partially unresolved, hindering efficient land use and productivity.

Small Farm Size And Fragmentation Of Landholdings

With population growth and inheritance laws, farm sizes in India have become increasingly small and fragmented. Small plots make mechanization difficult and inefficient, increase the cost of cultivation, and limit the benefits of economies of scale.

Lack Of Commercialisation

A significant portion of Indian agriculture still retains subsistence characteristics, where farmers grow crops primarily for self-consumption rather than for the market. This limits their income potential and their ability to invest in modern farming practices and diversify their crops.

Vast Underemployment

Agriculture is often characterized by disguised unemployment or underemployment, where more people are engaged in farming than are actually needed to perform the work. This leads to lower per-worker productivity and inefficient labour utilization.

Degradation Of Cultivable Land

Unsustainable agricultural practices have led to the degradation of arable land through soil erosion, salinization, waterlogging, depletion of soil nutrients, and contamination from excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This diminishes the land's long-term productivity.