Structural and Cultural Change in India

Understanding Colonialism

Colonialism is the process by which one country establishes its rule over another country or territory, primarily for economic exploitation. It is more than just political control; it is a comprehensive system that profoundly restructures the economy, society, and culture of the colonized nation. The experience of British colonialism, which lasted for nearly 200 years, was the most significant historical force that shaped modern India. It initiated a process of structural and cultural change that was often contradictory and disruptive.

A key feature of colonialism is that it creates a global system based on inequality. The economy of the colony is integrated into the world capitalist system, but in a subordinate position. The primary purpose of the colonial economy is to serve the interests of the metropolitan (ruling) country. For example, British colonialism transformed India into a supplier of cheap raw materials for its industries and a captive market for its manufactured goods.

Furthermore, colonialism was not just a system of political and economic domination; it was also a cultural project. The British justified their rule through an ideology that portrayed Indian society and culture as backward, irrational, and in need of 'civilizing'. This led to the introduction of Western institutions, particularly in education and law, which had a lasting impact on Indian culture and thought. Understanding the nature and legacy of colonialism is therefore essential for understanding the specific path of change and development that India has followed.

Urbanisation And Industrialisation

The processes of industrialisation (the growth of machine-based production) and urbanisation (the growth of cities) are central to the story of modern social change. In India, both these processes were initiated and shaped by the colonial experience.

The Colonial Experience

The impact of colonialism on Indian industry and cities was unique and paradoxical.

• De-industrialisation: While Britain was undergoing an Industrial Revolution, India experienced a process of de-industrialisation. The influx of cheap, machine-made textiles from Manchester destroyed India's traditional handicraft and textile industries, which were among the most advanced in the world. This led to a decline of old urban centres like Dhaka and Murshidabad and pushed a large number of artisans back into agriculture.
• Uneven Industrialisation: The modern industries that did develop under the British were heavily concentrated in a few port cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. These cities became the hubs of the colonial economy, facilitating the export of raw materials and the import of finished goods. The rest of the country remained largely agrarian.
• Colonial Urbanisation: The growth of these new colonial cities was not a reflection of a dynamic, industrializing economy. Unlike the industrial cities of Britain, which were centres of manufacturing, Indian cities like Calcutta were primarily centres of colonial administration and trade. They were marked by stark social and spatial segregation, with separate, well-planned residential areas for the British ('civil lines' or 'cantonments') and crowded, poorly serviced areas for the Indian population.

Industrialisation In Independent India

After 1947, the Indian government pursued a policy of state-led industrialisation, with a focus on building up a public sector in heavy industries. This led to the development of new industrial centres around large public sector undertakings (PSUs) in places like Bhilai, Bokaro, and Rourkela. However, the overall pace of industrialization remained slow, and the economy continued to be dominated by agriculture.

Urbanisation In Independent India

Urbanisation has accelerated in the post-independence period, driven by both the 'pull' of economic opportunities in cities and the 'push' of rural distress. The nature of urbanisation continues to be uneven. While metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bengaluru have grown into massive urban agglomerations, the growth of smaller towns has been slower. A key feature of Indian urbanisation is that a large part of the urban economy is in the informal sector, and a significant proportion of the urban population lives in slums and informal settlements with inadequate access to basic services. This creates a sharp contrast between the modern, 'world-class' image that some parts of the city project and the harsh reality of life for the urban poor.

Social Reform Movements In The 19th And Early 20th Century

The encounter with colonialism and Western modernity provoked a period of intense intellectual and social ferment in 19th-century India. This led to the emergence of a series of social reform movements, particularly among the newly emerging, English-educated middle class. These movements sought to reform and modernize Indian society by challenging what they saw as irrational and unjust social customs.

The issues taken up by the reform movements can be broadly divided into two categories:

1. Issues Concerning Women: A major focus of the early reform movements was the status of women. Reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy campaigned for the abolition of sati (the practice of widow immolation) and polygamy. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed the cause of widow remarriage. Others, like Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule, pioneered the cause of women's education. These movements challenged the patriarchal traditions of Indian society and laid the groundwork for the later women's movement.
2. Issues of Caste: The caste system, with its rigid hierarchy and the practice of untouchability, was another major target of the reform movements.
   • Upper-Caste Reformers: Movements like the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal and the Arya Samaj in Punjab, led by upper-caste reformers, condemned untouchability and advocated for the reform of caste restrictions.
   - Lower-Caste Movements: More radical critiques of the caste system came from movements led by lower-caste leaders. Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra launched a powerful attack on the Brahminical dominance and founded the Satyashodhak Samaj to work for the liberation of the lower castes. In Kerala, leaders like Sree Narayana Guru led movements for the social and religious rights of the lower castes. These movements were not just about reform; they were a struggle for social equality and self-respect.

These social reform movements played a crucial role in shaping modern India. They initiated a process of critical introspection and laid the intellectual foundations for the later nationalist movement's vision of a modern, democratic, and egalitarian society.

How Do We Approach The Study Of Sanskritisation, Modernisation, Secularisation And Westernisation

To understand the complex processes of social change in India, sociologists have developed several key concepts. The four most important are Sanskritisation, Westernisation, Modernisation, and Secularisation. It is crucial to approach these concepts with a critical and nuanced perspective.

• They are Analytical Tools: These concepts are not perfect descriptions of reality but are analytical tools or 'ideal types' that help us to identify and understand different dimensions of social change.
- They are Interrelated: These processes do not occur in isolation. They are deeply interconnected and often influence each other in complex ways. For example, Westernisation (the adoption of Western education) can be a vehicle for Modernisation (the adoption of rational, scientific values). - They have Contradictory Aspects: Each of these processes can have both positive and negative, or intended and unintended, consequences. For example, Sanskritisation might lead to a rise in the status of a particular group, but it can also reinforce the overall patriarchal and hierarchical values of the caste system. - Context is Key: The meaning and impact of these processes vary significantly across different regions, social groups, and historical contexts. A sociological approach requires a detailed, empirical study of how these processes actually unfold on the ground, rather than applying the concepts as rigid, universal formulas.

Different Kinds Of Social Change

Using the concepts discussed above, we can analyse the different forms that social change has taken in India.

Sanskritisation

This concept was developed by the sociologist M.N. Srinivas to describe a specific process of cultural and social mobility within the traditional caste system.

• Definition: Sanskritisation is the process by which a 'low' Hindu caste, or a tribal or other group, changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high, and frequently 'twice-born' (dvija) caste.
• Mechanism: By imitating the lifestyle of the dominant upper castes (e.g., by adopting vegetarianism, wearing the sacred thread, or following Brahminical rituals), a lower-caste group hopes to claim a higher position for itself in the caste hierarchy.
• Critique: While Sanskritisation allows for 'positional change' for a particular group within the caste structure, it does not challenge the structure itself. In fact, by trying to imitate the upper castes, it reinforces the legitimacy of the hierarchical values of the caste system. It has also been criticized for being a model that promotes patriarchal norms, as it often involves the lower castes adopting the more restrictive practices regarding women that are prevalent among the upper castes.

Westernisation

This concept, also introduced by M.N. Srinivas, refers to the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule.

• Definition: Westernisation refers to the adoption of Western patterns of thought, behaviour, and institutions. This includes changes at different levels:
  • Technology and Institutions: The adoption of Western science, technology, educational systems, and legal frameworks.
  • Values: The absorption of Western values like rationalism, humanism, and individualism.
  • Lifestyles: Changes in dress, food habits, and language.
• Complexity: Srinivas noted that Westernisation is a complex concept. A person could adopt Western dress and technology without necessarily adopting Western values of democracy and equality. He also pointed out that a small section of the Indian population that first adopted Westernisation acted as a new elite and a catalyst for change in the rest of society.

Modernisation And Secularisation

These are broader concepts that are often linked to Westernisation but are analytically distinct.

• Modernisation: This refers to the transition from a traditional, agrarian society to a modern, industrial, and rational one. It involves the growth of science and technology, the development of a complex division of labour, and the rise of democratic political institutions. While Westernisation is one path to modernity, it is possible for a society to modernize without becoming completely 'Western'.
• Secularisation: This refers to the process by which religion loses its influence over various spheres of social life. Traditionally, religion governed almost all aspects of life. In modern societies, institutions like the economy, politics, and law become increasingly independent of religious control. Secularization can also refer to a decline in the level of religious belief and practice among individuals. Sociologists have long debated the extent of secularization in the modern world, with some arguing that religion is not disappearing but is simply changing its form and taking on a more private role. In India, secularism has a specific political meaning, referring to the state's policy of treating all religions equally.