Socio-Cultural Shaping of Development

Cultural Basis : Socio-Cultural Shaping Of Behaviour

Human behaviour and psychological development are profoundly shaped by the socio-cultural context in which individuals live. Culture provides the framework of shared meanings, beliefs, values, and practices that influence how we perceive the world, interact with others, and develop our sense of self. Understanding the cultural basis of behaviour is crucial for a holistic view of human development.

Concept Of Culture

Culture is a complex concept that encompasses the learned behaviours, beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people. It is transmitted from one generation to the next and provides a blueprint for living within a particular society or community. Culture is not static; it is dynamic and constantly evolving.

Key aspects of culture include:

• Shared Meanings: Culture provides a common understanding of symbols, language, and non-verbal communication. For example, the gesture of Namaste holds a specific shared meaning of respect and greeting across many parts of India.
• Beliefs and Values: Core ideas about how the world works (beliefs) and what is considered important, desirable, or morally right (values). Indian culture, for instance, often places high value on family ties, respect for elders, and community harmony.
• Norms: Rules or expectations for appropriate behaviour in various situations. These can be formal (laws) or informal (customs, traditions, etiquette). Eating food with hands in certain social settings is a cultural norm in India.
• Practices and Rituals: Routine behaviours and symbolic actions that are characteristic of a group, such as festival celebrations (Diwali, Eid, Christmas), wedding ceremonies, or daily prayer rituals.
• Material Artifacts: Physical objects created and used by a culture, such as tools, clothing (like sarees, kurtas, dhotis), food (diverse Indian cuisine), art, and architecture.

Culture acts as a lens through which individuals interpret their experiences and guides their behaviour. It shapes everything from basic motor skills like how children learn to walk (e.g., the availability of space or presence of siblings to help) to complex cognitive processes like problem-solving styles and even the experience and expression of emotions (as discussed in the previous chapter).

Cultural Transmission

Cultural transmission is the process by which cultural elements (knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms) are passed down from one generation to the next. This process is fundamental to the survival and continuity of any culture. It primarily occurs through learning, both explicit instruction and implicit observation.

There are several mechanisms of cultural transmission:

• Socialisation: The lifelong process of learning the ways of society or a social group so that one can function within it. It involves internalizing norms, values, and expected behaviours. (Discussed in detail in Section I3).
• Enculturation: The process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways of their *own* culture. It is often used synonymously with primary socialisation. (Discussed in detail in Section I2).
• Imitation and Observation: Children and adults learn by observing and imitating the behaviours of others, particularly those they look up to or are part of their group. Learning traditional dances or cooking methods by watching elders are examples.
• Language: Language is a primary vehicle for cultural transmission, encoding cultural knowledge, history, values, and ways of thinking. Proverbs, stories, and oral traditions convey cultural wisdom.
• Education: Formal schooling transmits academic knowledge as well as cultural values, history, and social norms through curriculum and the hidden curriculum (classroom rules, social interactions).
• Rituals and Practices: Participation in cultural rituals and practices (e.g., family gatherings, religious ceremonies, community festivals) reinforces cultural identity and transmits traditions.

Cultural transmission ensures that new members of a society learn how to behave appropriately, maintain social order, and perpetuate the culture's legacy. Failures or shifts in cultural transmission can lead to cultural change or loss.

Enculturation

Enculturation is the process by which individuals learn and internalise the values, beliefs, norms, skills, and behaviours of their native culture. It is the process of becoming a competent member of one's own culture. Enculturation begins from the moment of birth and continues throughout life, although the most intensive period is typically during childhood and adolescence.

Enculturation is largely unconscious and happens through immersion in the cultural environment. It involves:

• Observation: Watching how family members, peers, and community members behave and interact.
• Imitation: Copying observed behaviours.
• Instruction: Receiving direct teaching from parents, elders, and teachers about cultural rules and expectations. For example, being taught how to greet elders respectfully using specific phrases or gestures.
• Reinforcement and Punishment: Being rewarded for culturally appropriate behaviour and receiving disapproval or punishment for inappropriate behaviour.
• Language Acquisition: Learning the language of one's culture is a fundamental part of enculturation, as language carries cultural meanings and ways of thinking.

Enculturation shapes an individual's personality, identity, worldview, and understanding of social roles. It instils a sense of belonging and cultural identity.

Answer:

While often used interchangeably with socialisation, enculturation specifically refers to learning one's primary culture, whereas socialisation can also include learning the norms of subcultures, organisations, or new social roles later in life. However, the processes involved are very similar.

Socialisation

Socialisation is the lifelong process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and norms necessary to become active and functioning members of their society. It is a broader term than enculturation, encompassing all learning that enables participation in various social groups and roles throughout the lifespan.

The purpose of socialisation is twofold:

• For Society: It ensures the transmission of culture, maintains social order, and prepares individuals to fulfill social roles (e.g., parent, worker, citizen).
• For the Individual: It helps individuals develop a sense of self, learn how to interact with others, understand social expectations, and acquire the skills needed to function independently and cooperatively.

Socialisation happens through various interactions and experiences. It's a dynamic process influenced by both the individual's characteristics and the social environments they encounter.

Types of Socialisation:

• Primary Socialisation: Occurs primarily in early childhood within the family, where foundational norms, values, and language are learned. This is largely synonymous with enculturation.
• Secondary Socialisation: Occurs outside the family in institutions like school, peer groups, and media. Individuals learn specific roles, rules, and behaviours relevant to these settings.
• Anticipatory Socialisation: Preparing for future roles (e.g., learning about parenting before becoming a parent, preparing for a job interview).
• Resocialisation: Learning entirely new norms and values that are different from previous ones, often in a new environment (e.g., joining the army, entering prison, migrating to a new country).

Socialisation Agents

Socialisation is carried out by various individuals, groups, and institutions, known as socialisation agents. The influence of these agents changes over the lifespan.

1. Family:

The primary agent of socialisation, especially in early childhood. Parents and other family members (grandparents, siblings, extended family in joint households) teach basic skills, values, language, and norms. Parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, neglectful) significantly impact a child's development. In India, the strong family structure and intergenerational living often mean extended family members play a crucial role as socialisation agents.

2. School:

Provides formal education and transmits academic knowledge but also socialises children into societal norms, rules, cooperation, and citizenship. Children learn to interact with peers and authority figures outside the family. The school curriculum often reflects cultural values and history.

3. Peer Group:

Groups of individuals roughly the same age and social status. Peer influence becomes increasingly important from late childhood through adolescence. Peer groups provide opportunities to learn social skills, form friendships, explore identities, and sometimes challenge family values. Peer norms and pressure can significantly shape behaviour, choice of activities, and attitudes.

4. Media:

Includes television, internet, social media, books, music, and movies. Media is a powerful, often informal, agent of socialisation, conveying messages about values, lifestyles, gender roles, consumerism, and current events. Its influence has grown dramatically with technological advancements. Exposure to diverse media content can broaden perspectives but also potentially transmit negative stereotypes or values.

Other agents include religious institutions, workplaces, and community organisations, each contributing to socialisation in specific ways across different life stages.

Acculturation

Acculturation is the process of psychological and cultural change that results from continuous firsthand contact between individuals or groups of different cultural backgrounds. It is particularly relevant for migrants, refugees, ethnic minorities, or indigenous peoples interacting with a dominant culture, but it can also occur through indirect contact like media exposure or globalisation.

Acculturation involves changes in both the individuals or group from the non-dominant culture and, to some extent, the dominant culture, though the impact is usually more significant on the non-dominant group. It is a dynamic process that affects behaviour, values, identity, and health.

Acculturation Strategies (Berry's Model):

John Berry proposed a model identifying four main strategies individuals or groups may adopt when interacting with a new or dominant culture, based on their orientation towards their own culture and the new culture:

1. Integration:

Individuals maintain their own culture AND adopt aspects of the new culture. This is often associated with positive psychological outcomes, as individuals benefit from both cultural worlds. They are bicultural.

2. Assimilation:

Individuals adopt the new culture and relinquish their own culture. They seek to become absorbed into the dominant society.

3. Separation:

Individuals maintain their own culture and avoid contact with the new culture. This can happen when the dominant group is discriminatory or when the non-dominant group wishes to preserve its identity.

4. Marginalisation:

Individuals neither maintain their own culture nor adopt the new culture. They feel alienated from both and may experience significant psychological distress.

Acculturation in the Indian Context:

Acculturation is a relevant phenomenon in India due to internal migration, urbanisation, and global influences:

• Internal Migration: People moving from rural villages to large cities, or from one state to another with a different linguistic and cultural background, undergo acculturation. They might integrate by learning the local language and customs while maintaining their regional identity and traditions.
• Globalisation and Western Influence: Exposure to Western media, education, and lifestyles leads to acculturation, particularly among younger generations in urban areas. This can manifest as changes in dress, food habits, language use (e.g., using English phrases), and values. This often leads to a mix of traditional and modern values, reflecting integration.
• Diaspora Communities: Indians migrating to countries like the UK, USA, Canada, or the Middle East experience significant acculturation pressures. They navigate maintaining their Indian cultural heritage while adapting to the norms of the host country. Many strive for integration, forming Indian cultural associations and celebrating festivals while also participating in local society.

The process of acculturation is complex and can be stressful (acculturative stress), potentially impacting mental health. Factors like the reception by the dominant culture, the presence of ethnic enclaves, and individual personality traits influence the process and outcomes of acculturation. It highlights how development is shaped not just by one's birth culture, but also by contact and interaction with other cultures.