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Latest Geography NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th)
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Class 10th Chapters
1. Resources And Development 2. Forest And Wildlife Resources 3. Water Resources
4. Agriculture 5. Minerals And Energy Resources 6. Manufacturing Industries
7. Lifelines Of National Economy

Chapter 4 Agriculture

India is a country of significant agricultural importance, with approximately two-thirds of its population engaged in agricultural activities. Agriculture is considered a primary activity because it produces most of the food consumed by the population. Beyond food grains, agriculture also provides essential raw materials for various industries, such as cotton for the textile industry, sugarcane for sugar mills, and rubber for rubber-based industries. Additionally, some agricultural products like tea, coffee, and spices are important exports for India.

Types Of Farming

Agriculture has been practiced in India for thousands of years, evolving significantly over time. Cultivation methods have changed based on factors like the physical environment, available technology, and socio-cultural practices. Farming systems in India range from subsistence-level farming to commercial-level farming. The following are the main types of farming practiced in different parts of the country.

Primitive Subsistence Farming

This is a traditional farming method still practiced in some limited areas of India. It is carried out on small patches of land using basic or primitive tools (such as hoe, dao, and digging sticks) and relies on family or community labour. This type of farming is heavily dependent on natural conditions like the monsoon rainfall, the natural fertility of the soil, and other environmental suitability for growing crops.

A key characteristic is 'slash and burn' agriculture. Farmers clear a small plot of land by cutting down vegetation and burning it. The ashes add nutrients to the soil temporarily. They then grow cereals and other food crops primarily to meet the needs of their own family (subsistence). When the fertility of the soil on that patch declines after a few crops, the farmers shift to a fresh patch of land and repeat the process. This shifting allows nature to replenish the soil's fertility through natural processes.

Land productivity in this type of agriculture is low because farmers do not use modern inputs like fertilisers or irrigation. Primitive subsistence farming is known by different local names across India:

*(Globally, 'slash and burn' agriculture is also known by various names like ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central America, ‘Conuco’ in Venezuela, ‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’ in Indonesia, and ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.)*

Illustration depicting slash and burn agriculture

*(The example of Rinjha's family in Assam describes primitive subsistence farming, where they clear, slash, and burn land, irrigate using bamboo canals, and move to a new plot when soil fertility declines.)*

Intensive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is found in areas where there is very high population pressure on agricultural land. It is a labour-intensive form of farming, meaning it requires a large amount of manual labour.

To obtain higher production from limited land, farmers use high doses of biochemical inputs (like fertilisers and pesticides) and rely on irrigation. Despite the 'right of inheritance' causing land to be divided into smaller and smaller holdings across generations, making farms economically unviable, farmers continue to cultivate these small plots intensively to get maximum output, often lacking alternative sources of livelihood.

This constant intensive cultivation on limited land puts enormous pressure on agricultural land resources. This farming system is practiced in densely populated regions of India, such as the northern plains.

Commercial Farming

The main characteristic of commercial farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs to achieve high productivity. These inputs include:

The primary goal of commercial farming is to produce crops for sale in the market, rather than for self-consumption (subsistence).

The extent of commercialisation varies regionally. For example, rice is a commercial crop in states like Haryana and Punjab, where it is grown extensively using modern inputs primarily for sale. However, in Odisha, rice is primarily grown for subsistence, consumed by the farming family itself.

Photo of a banana plantation in Southern India
Photo of a bamboo plantation in North-east India

Plantation is a type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown over a large area. Plantation agriculture represents an interface between agriculture and industry because the produce often serves as raw material for specific industries. Plantations typically cover extensive tracts of land, require significant capital investment (capital-intensive inputs), and often rely on migrant labourers.

Important plantation crops in India include tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, and banana. Examples are tea plantations in Assam and North Bengal, and coffee plantations in Karnataka. Since the output is market-oriented, a well-developed network of transport and communication is crucial to connect the plantation areas, processing industries, and markets.

Cropping Pattern

India's diverse physical environment and cultures are reflected in its agricultural practices and cropping patterns. A variety of food and non-food crops, vegetables, fruits, spices, and condiments are grown. India has three main cropping seasons, determined by climate and monsoon patterns.

Rabi Crops

Rabi crops are winter crops. They are typically sown during the winter months, from October to December. These crops are harvested in the summer months, from April to June.

Important Rabi crops include wheat, barley, peas, gram (chickpea), and mustard. While grown across many parts of India, the northern and north-western states (Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh) are major producers of wheat and other Rabi crops. Availability of precipitation during winter, often due to western temperate cyclones, benefits these crops. The success of the Green Revolution in states like Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Rajasthan has also been key to the growth of Rabi crops like wheat.

Kharif Crops

Kharif crops are monsoon crops. They are sown with the onset of the monsoon in different parts of the country. These crops are typically harvested during September-October.

Important Kharif crops are paddy (rice), maize, jowar (sorghum), bajra (pearl millet), tur (arhar or pigeon pea), moong (green gram), urad (black gram), cotton, jute, groundnut, and soyabean. Major rice-growing regions include Assam, West Bengal, coastal areas of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Maharashtra (especially the Konkan coast), along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently, paddy cultivation has also become significant in Punjab and Haryana. In some states like Assam, West Bengal, and Odisha, three crops of paddy (named Aus, Aman, and Boro) are grown in a single year.

Zaid Season

The Zaid season is a short season that falls between the Rabi and Kharif seasons, during the summer months. Crops produced during this period are primarily quick-growing varieties like watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, various vegetables, and fodder crops. Sugarcane is a crop that takes a long period, almost a year, to grow and mature.

Major Crops

India cultivates a wide variety of food and non-food crops, influenced by variations in soil, climate, and farming practices across different regions. The following are some of the major crops grown in India.

Rice

Rice is the staple food crop for the majority of people in India. India is the second largest producer of rice globally, after China. Rice is a Kharif crop, requiring specific geographical conditions for growth:

In areas that receive less rainfall, rice cultivation is possible with the help of irrigation. Rice is primarily grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal regions, and river deltaic areas. The development of extensive canal irrigation networks and tubewells has allowed rice cultivation to expand to regions with lower rainfall, such as Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Rajasthan.

Photo showing rice cultivation
Photo showing rice fields ready for harvest
Map showing the distribution of rice cultivation in India

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India and serves as the main food crop in the northern and north-western parts of the country. Wheat is a Rabi crop, requiring specific geographical conditions:

India has two primary wheat-growing regions: the Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and the black soil region of the Deccan. The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.

Photo showing wheat cultivation
Map showing the distribution of wheat cultivation in India

Millets

Millets (Jowar, bajra, and ragi) are considered important millets grown in India. Despite being known as coarse grains, they are very rich in nutritional value. For example, ragi is particularly high in iron, calcium, other micronutrients, and roughage.

Photo showing Bajra cultivation

Maize

Maize is a versatile crop used both as food and fodder. It is a Kharif crop that thrives in specific geographical conditions:

In some states, like Bihar, maize is also cultivated during the Rabi season. Increased use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers, and irrigation has contributed to the rise in maize production. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Photo showing Maize cultivation

Pulses

India holds the distinction of being both the largest producer and the largest consumer of pulses globally. Pulses are a vital part of a vegetarian diet, serving as a major source of protein. Major pulses grown in India include tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur (lentil), peas, and gram (chickpea).

Pulses are crops that require less moisture and can survive even in dry conditions. They are typically grown in rotation with other crops because most pulses are leguminous, meaning they help to restore soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air (all except arhar). Major pulse-producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Food Crops Other Than Grains

Beyond the primary food grains, India produces several other important food crops, including sugarcane, oil seeds, beverages like tea and coffee, and a variety of fruits and vegetables (horticulture).

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a crop cultivated in both tropical and subtropical regions. It requires a hot and humid climate with a temperature ranging from 21°C to 27°C and annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cm. In areas with low rainfall, irrigation is necessary. Sugarcane can grow on various soil types and needs significant manual labour throughout its growth cycle, from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane globally, after Brazil.

Sugarcane is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggery), khandsari, and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab, and Haryana.

Photo showing Sugarcane cultivation

Oil Seeds

India is a major producer of oilseeds globally. In 2018, India was the second largest producer of groundnut (after China) and the third largest producer of rapeseed (after Canada and China). Oilseeds cover approximately 12% of the country's total cropped area. Main oil-seeds include groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed, and sunflower.

Most of these are edible and used as cooking oils, while some are also used as raw materials in industries producing soap, cosmetics, and ointments.

Photo showing groundnut, sunflower, and mustard crops in a field

Tea

Tea cultivation is a classic example of plantation agriculture and is an important beverage crop in India. Initially introduced by the British, most tea plantations are now owned by Indians. Tea plants thrive in specific geographical conditions:

Tea cultivation is a labour-intensive industry, requiring a large supply of abundant, cheap, and skilled labour. Tea leaves are processed within the tea garden itself to preserve their freshness. Major tea-producing states include Assam, the hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts (West Bengal), Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. Other producing states are Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, and Tripura. In 2018, India was the second largest producer of tea globally, after China.

Photo showing Tea cultivation
Photo showing Tea-leaves harvesting

Coffee

Indian coffee is renowned worldwide for its quality. The Arabica variety, originally brought from Yemen, is the main type produced in India and is in high global demand. Coffee cultivation was first introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and is primarily confined to the Nilgiri region across Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

Horticulture Crops

India is a significant producer of fruits and vegetables, ranking as the second largest producer globally after China in 2018. India cultivates both tropical and temperate fruits. Some of the highly demanded fruits and their major producing states include:

India is also an important producer of various vegetables, including peas, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal, and potato.

Photo showing apricots, apples, and pomegranates
Photo showing cultivation of vegetables like peas, cauliflower, tomato, and brinjal

Non-Food Crops

In addition to food crops, India also grows important non-food crops, including rubber and various fibre crops like cotton and jute.

Rubber

Rubber is primarily an equatorial crop, but it can also be grown under specific conditions in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It requires a moist and humid climate with high rainfall (more than 200 cm) and temperature (above 25°C). Rubber is an important raw material for industry. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Garo hills of Meghalaya.

Fibre Crops

Four major fibre crops are grown in India: cotton, jute, hemp, and natural silk. Cotton, jute, and hemp are derived from plants cultivated in the soil. Natural silk is obtained from the cocoons of silkworms, which are fed on green leaves, especially mulberry leaves. The rearing of silkworms for silk production is known as sericulture.

Cotton

India is widely believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. Cotton is a crucial raw material for the cotton textile industry. In 2017, India was the second largest producer of cotton globally, after China. Cotton grows best in the drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It needs specific geographical conditions:

Cotton is a Kharif crop and takes 6 to 8 months to mature. Major cotton-producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Haryana.

Photo showing Cotton cultivation

Jute

Jute is known as the 'golden fibre'. It grows well on fertile, well-drained soils found in flood plains, where the soil is replenished annually. Jute requires high temperatures during its growth period. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, and Meghalaya are the major jute-producing states. Jute fibre is used to make various products like gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets, and other artefacts.

Technological And Institutional Reforms

Agriculture in India has a long history, spanning thousands of years. However, continuous cultivation without corresponding advancements in technology and institutional changes has slowed the pace of agricultural development. Despite improvements in irrigation sources, a large number of farmers still depend on monsoon rainfall and the natural fertility of the soil for farming, posing a challenge for feeding a growing population.

Agriculture provides livelihoods for over 60% of India's population, highlighting the need for significant technical and institutional reforms. After Independence, the government prioritised institutional reforms to improve Indian agriculture. These included efforts towards:

'Land reform' was a main focus of the First Five Year Plan. The traditional right of inheritance had led to land holdings becoming increasingly fragmented, making consolidation necessary.

Although land reform laws were passed, their implementation was often slow or ineffective. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government introduced agricultural reforms, notably the Green Revolution (based on using modern package technology, including HYV seeds, fertilisers, and irrigation) and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) for dairy development. While these strategies boosted production, their benefits were often concentrated in a few selected areas.

To address this imbalance and bring about more comprehensive change, a comprehensive land development programme was launched in the 1980s and 1990s, incorporating both institutional and technical reforms across the country. Key steps taken included:

Photo showing modern technological equipment used in agriculture

Bhoodan – Gramdan

The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement, initiated by Vinoba Bhave (spiritual heir of Mahatma Gandhi), is a notable example of institutional reform based on voluntary donation. Inspired by Gandhi's concept of 'gram swarajya' (village self-rule), Vinoba Bhave undertook a country-wide padyatra (walking tour) to spread Gandhi's message. In Pochampalli, Andhra Pradesh, when poor landless villagers requested land, Vinoba Bhave, unable to promise immediate land, offered to speak to the government about providing land for cooperative farming.

Spontaneously, Shri Ram Chandra Reddy offered to donate 80 acres of land to be distributed among 80 landless villagers. This voluntary act of land donation was called 'Bhoodan' (Land Gift). Vinoba Bhave continued to travel, spreading this idea across India. Later, some zamindars (large landowners) offered to donate entire villages, which was known as 'Gramdan' (Village Gift). Although inspired by altruism, many landowners also donated land due to fear of the Land Ceiling Act (which aimed to limit the maximum size of landholdings). This movement, involving voluntary land and village donations, is often referred to as the 'Blood-less Revolution'.

Photo of Vinoba Bhave