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Latest Geography NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th)
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Class 10th Chapters
1. Resources And Development 2. Forest And Wildlife Resources 3. Water Resources
4. Agriculture 5. Minerals And Energy Resources 6. Manufacturing Industries
7. Lifelines Of National Economy

Chapter 5 Minerals And Energy Resources

Minerals are fundamental to human life and development. Many everyday items are made from metals derived from minerals. Minerals are found within the Earth's crust, embedded in rocks, and various metals are extracted through refinement.

From the smallest pin to large buildings, ships, vehicles, and industrial machinery, minerals are indispensable. They also provide the energy resources that power modern life. Even biological processes in living things require minerals.

Throughout history, humans have relied on minerals for various purposes, including sustenance, decoration, and cultural practices. The diverse and essential roles of minerals highlight their importance as a resource.

What Is A Mineral?

Minerals are integral to the composition of the Earth's crust and essential for life processes.

All Living Things Need Minerals

Minerals are crucial for life processes to occur. Although they constitute a very small percentage of our nutrient intake (about 0.3%), they are vital for the body to utilise other food substances. They are essential for the functioning of living organisms.

Definition Of A Mineral

According to geologists, a mineral is defined as a "homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure." Minerals exhibit a wide variety of forms in nature, ranging from extremely hard (like diamond) to very soft (like talc).

Rocks are typically made up of combinations of these homogenous mineral substances. Some rocks, like limestone, consist mainly of a single mineral, but most rocks are composed of several minerals in varying proportions. Although over 2000 minerals have been identified, only a limited number are commonly found in most rocks.

The specific combination of elements that forms a mineral is determined by the physical and chemical conditions present during its formation. These conditions influence the mineral's unique properties, such as colour, hardness, crystal form, lustre, and density, which geologists use for classification.

Study Of Minerals By Geographers And Geologists

Minerals are studied by both geographers and geologists, though with different focuses.

Minerals are also classified for general and commercial purposes, often grouped based on their composition (e.g., metallic or non-metallic).

Mode Of Occurrence Of Minerals

Minerals are typically found in concentrations within rocks, often referred to as "ores." An ore is an accumulation of one or more minerals mixed with other elements. For an ore to be considered commercially viable, the concentration of the desired mineral within it must be sufficient to make extraction profitable. The geological formation or structure in which minerals occur determines the ease and cost of mining them.

Minerals generally occur in the following ways:

In Igneous And Metamorphic Rocks (Veins And Lodes)

In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals can be found in cracks, crevices, faults, or joints. Smaller occurrences are called veins, and larger ones are called lodes. These are often formed when minerals in liquid, molten, or gaseous states are forced upwards through cavities and then cool and solidify as they rise towards the surface. Many major metallic minerals, such as tin, copper, zinc, and lead, are found in veins and lodes.

In Sedimentary Rocks (Beds Or Layers)

A number of minerals occur in horizontal beds or layers within sedimentary rocks. These are formed through processes of deposition, accumulation, and concentration over time in horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of iron ore are formed through the concentration of material under great heat and pressure over long periods. Another group of sedimentary minerals, including gypsum, potash salt, and sodium salt, are formed as a result of evaporation, particularly common in arid regions.

Decomposition Of Surface Rocks (Residual Mass)

Some minerals are formed through the decomposition of surface rocks. Soluble components are removed, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing the desired ores. Bauxite, the ore from which aluminium is extracted, is typically formed through this process of decomposition.

As Alluvial Deposits (Placer Deposits)

Certain minerals that are not corroded by water can occur as alluvial deposits found in the sands of valley floors and at the base of hills. These deposits are known as 'placer deposits'. Important minerals found in placer deposits include gold, silver, tin, and platinum.

In Ocean Waters

Ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but most are too thinly distributed to be economically viable for extraction. However, common salt, magnesium, and bromine are largely obtained from ocean waters. The ocean beds also contain rich deposits of manganese nodules.

Distribution In India

India is endowed with diverse mineral resources, but their distribution across the country is uneven. Generally, the peninsular rock formations contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica, and many non-metallic minerals. Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula (Gujarat and Assam) primarily hold petroleum deposits. Rajasthan, with its peninsular rock systems, contains reserves of many non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains of north India are largely lacking in significant economic mineral deposits. This uneven distribution is due to variations in geological structure, processes, and the immense time scales involved in mineral formation.

For a mineral 'deposit' or 'reserve' to become a viable 'mine', several factors are important: the concentration of the mineral in the ore, the ease of extraction, and proximity to markets. A choice must be made among various options to meet demand economically. The distribution of specific major minerals in India is detailed in maps for better understanding.

*(Note: The text mentions 'Rat-Hole Mining' in Meghalaya as an example of local community-owned mining, distinct from nationalised mineral extraction which requires government permission. The National Green Tribunal has declared this method illegal.)*

Ferrous Minerals

Ferrous minerals contain iron. They are particularly important because they provide a strong foundation for metallurgical industries, especially the steel industry. These minerals account for a significant portion (about three-fourths) of the total value of metallic mineral production in India. India exports considerable amounts of ferrous minerals after fulfilling its domestic needs.

Iron Ore

Iron ore is considered a basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development. India is fortunate to have abundant and good quality iron ore resources. Two main types of iron ore found are Magnetite and Hematite.

In 2018-19, almost the entire production of iron ore (97%) came from just four states: Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and Jharkhand.

Major iron ore belts in India include:

Photo of an iron ore mine

Manganese

Manganese is a crucial mineral used primarily in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy (approximately 10 kg of manganese per tonne of steel). It also finds use in producing bleaching powder, insecticides, and paints. In 2018-19, the major manganese-producing states by share were Madhya Pradesh (33%), Maharashtra (27%), Odisha (16%), Karnataka (12%), Andhra Pradesh (10%), and others (2%).

Pie chart showing state-wise share of manganese production in India, 2018-19

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron. India's reserves and production of these minerals are not as substantial as desired. However, they are vital components in numerous metallurgical, engineering, and electrical industries. Key non-ferrous minerals include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc, and gold.

Copper

India faces a significant deficiency in copper reserves and production. Copper is highly valued for its properties: it is malleable (can be hammered into sheets), ductile (can be drawn into wires), and a good conductor of electricity. Due to these properties, copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics, and chemical industries. The leading copper-producing regions in India are the Balaghat mines (Madhya Pradesh), Khetri mines (Rajasthan), and Singhbhum district (Jharkhand).

Photo of copper mines at Malanjkhand

Bauxite

Although aluminium is present in various ores, it is primarily obtained from bauxite, a clay-like substance. Bauxite deposits are formed from the decomposition of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Alumina is first extracted from bauxite, and then aluminium is obtained from alumina. Aluminium is a valuable metal because it combines the strength of metals like iron with extreme lightness. It also possesses good conductivity and high malleability.

India's bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills, and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni. Odisha was the largest bauxite-producing state in India in 2016-17, with the Panchpatmali deposits (Koraput district) being the most important in the state. Other major producing states in 2018-19 included Jharkhand (10%), Gujarat (9%), Chhattisgarh (6%), Maharashtra (6%), and Madhya Pradesh (3%).

Photo of a Bauxite mine
Pie chart showing state-wise share of Bauxite production in India, 2018-19

Non-Metallic Minerals

Non-metallic minerals do not contain metal. Examples include mica, salt, potash, gypsum, etc.

Mica

Mica is a non-metallic mineral composed of layered plates or leaves that can be easily split into very thin sheets. These sheets are incredibly thin; thousands can be stacked to form a sheet just a few centimeters high. Mica can be found in various colours: clear, black, green, red, yellow, or brown. Mica is an essential mineral, especially in the electrical and electronic industries, due to its excellent dielectric strength (ability to withstand electric stress), low power loss factor, insulating properties, and resistance to high voltage.

Significant mica deposits are located along the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. The Koderma-Gaya–Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand is the leading producer. Other important mica producing areas include around Ajmer in Rajasthan and the Nellore mica belt in Andhra Pradesh.

Rock Minerals (Limestone)

Limestone is a rock mineral primarily composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates. It is commonly found in sedimentary rocks across most geological formations. Limestone is a basic raw material for the cement industry and is also essential for smelting iron ore in blast furnaces (acting as a flux).

*(Chota Nagpur plateau is often called a 'storehouse of minerals' because of its rich and varied mineral deposits, including coal, iron ore, mica, and others, largely due to its geological history and structure.)*

Map of India showing the distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite, and Mica

Hazards Of Mining

While mining extracts essential minerals for our comfort, it is a hazardous industry with significant negative impacts on the health of miners and the environment.

Impacts on miners' health: Miners inhale dust and noxious fumes, making them vulnerable to pulmonary (lung) diseases. The workplace poses constant threats like collapsing mine roofs, inundation (flooding), and fires, especially in coal mines.

Impacts on the environment: Mining activities can contaminate nearby water sources. The dumping of waste material and slurry generated during mining leads to the degradation of land and soil, and contributes to stream and river pollution.

Photo showing air pollution due to dust in mining areas

To mitigate these risks and prevent mining from being a "killer industry," stricter safety regulations and effective implementation of environmental laws are essential.

*(The anecdote about Emperor Napoleon III and aluminium utensils highlights the changing perceived value of a mineral (aluminium) over time, from a rare precious material to a common one, as technology and production methods evolve.)*

Conservation Of Minerals

Our industry and agriculture are highly dependent on minerals. However, mineral deposits are finite and non-renewable resources that were formed over millions of years. The rate at which they are being consumed is incredibly rapid compared to their formation rate.

The total amount of usable mineral deposits constitutes a very small fraction (about one percent) of the Earth's crust. These resources are valuable but limited possessions. As extraction continues, reaching deeper depths to obtain ores becomes more costly, and the quality of the extracted minerals may decrease.

Therefore, it is imperative to conserve minerals and use them in a planned and sustainable manner. Efforts are needed to constantly develop improved technologies that can facilitate the use of lower-grade ores at lower costs. Additionally, recycling of metals, utilising scrap metals, and finding and using substitutes for minerals are important steps to conserve our limited mineral resources for the future generations.

Energy Resources

Energy is fundamental for all human activities, powering everything from cooking and heating to transport and industrial machinery. Energy is generated from various sources, including fuel minerals (coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium) and electricity.

Energy resources are broadly classified into two categories:

Firewood and cattle dung cakes are the most common energy sources in rural India, meeting a large percentage (over 70%) of household energy needs. However, their continued use is challenging due to decreasing forest cover. Using dung cakes for fuel is also discouraged as it depletes valuable manure that could be used to improve agricultural productivity.

Conventional Sources Of Energy

Conventional energy sources are the traditional and widely used ones, often derived from finite fossil fuels.

Coal

In India, coal is the most abundant fossil fuel and provides a substantial portion of the nation's energy needs. It is used for power generation, supplying energy to industries, and for domestic use. India heavily relies on coal for its commercial energy requirements.

Coal is formed over millions of years from the compression of plant material. It exists in various forms depending on the degree of compression, depth, and time of burial:

Indian coal occurs in two main geological age series: Gondwana (over 200 million years old, contains metallurgical coal) and Tertiary deposits (about 55 million years old). Major Gondwana coal resources are in the Damodar valley belt (West Bengal-Jharkhand, including Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro) and the Godavari, Mahanadi, Son, and Wardha valleys. Tertiary coals are found in northeastern states like Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland.

Coal is a bulky material and loses weight when burned (reduced to ash). Therefore, heavy industries and thermal power stations are often located near coalfields to minimise transportation costs.

Photo of the inside of a coal mine
Photo of the outside view of a coal mine

Petroleum

Petroleum (mineral oil) is the second major energy source in India after coal. It serves as fuel for lighting and heating, provides lubricants for machinery, and acts as a raw material for numerous manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries are considered "nodal industries" as they supply raw materials for synthetic textiles, fertilizers, and various chemical industries.

Most petroleum occurrences in India are associated with geological structures like anticlines and fault traps in tertiary rock formations. In folded regions, oil gets trapped in the crests of upfolds (anticlines or domes) within porous rock layers (limestone or sandstone), prevented from moving by non-porous layers above and below. Petroleum is also found in fault traps where porous and non-porous rocks meet due to faulting. Natural gas, being lighter, usually lies above the oil deposits.

Major petroleum production areas in India include Mumbai High (offshore), Gujarat (Ankeleshwar being most important), and Assam (the oldest oil producing state, with important fields like Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran-Hugrijan).

Natural Gas

Natural gas is typically found alongside petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. It is a versatile fuel used domestically and industrially. It's used in the power sector for electricity generation, for heating in industries, as a raw material in chemical and fertilizer industries, and increasingly as transport fuel (CNG) and cooking fuel (PNG) in urban areas.

India's major gas reserves are located in the Mumbai High region and allied fields along the west coast, supplemented by finds in the Cambay basin. New reserves have also been discovered along the East Coast in the Krishna-Godavari basin.

India's gas infrastructure has expanded significantly with a network of cross-country pipelines. The first major pipeline was the 1,700 km Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) line, linking gas fields to industrial complexes in western and northern India. The national gas grid infrastructure is planned to connect all gas sources and markets across the country.

Map of India showing the distribution of Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas

Electricity

Electricity is essential in today's world, and its per capita consumption is a key indicator of development. Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:

Once generated, the electricity produced by both methods is the same. Thermal power stations rely on finite fossil fuels for electricity generation.

Map of India showing the distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

Non-Conventional Sources Of Energy

India's increasing reliance on fossil fuels for its growing energy needs has raised concerns about future energy supply security and environmental problems. This has led to a pressing need to develop and use renewable energy sources, known as non-conventional energy sources.

India is well-endowed with natural resources for these renewable sources, including sunlight, water, wind, and biomass. The country has large programs for developing these resources.

Nuclear Or Atomic Energy

Nuclear or Atomic Energy is generated by altering the structure of atoms, releasing heat energy used to produce electricity. Uranium and Thorium are key minerals used for this purpose. Uranium is found in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges (Rajasthan), while Thorium is abundant in the Monazite sands of Kerala. India has several nuclear power stations generating electricity from these minerals.

Solar Energy

India's tropical location provides enormous potential for tapping solar energy. Photovoltaic technology directly converts sunlight into electricity. Solar energy is becoming increasingly popular, especially in rural and remote areas, helping to reduce dependence on traditional fuels like firewood and dung cakes, thus contributing to environmental conservation and maintaining manure supply for agriculture. Large solar power plants are also being established.

Photo of a solar-operated electronic milk testing equipment

Wind Power

India has great potential for wind power generation. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu (from Nagarcoil to Madurai). Other states with important wind farms include Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Lakshadweep. Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are notable for their effective use of wind energy.

Photo of wind mills in Nagarcoil

Biogas

Biogas is produced from organic matter such as shrubs, farm waste, and animal/human waste, mainly for domestic use in rural areas. The decomposition process yields gas with higher thermal efficiency than kerosene, dung cake, and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal, cooperative, or individual levels. Plants using cattle dung are called 'Gobar gas plants' in rural India. Biogas provides dual benefits: energy and improved quality manure. It is considered a very efficient way to use cattle dung and helps prevent loss of trees and manure by reducing the need to burn firewood and cow dung cakes for fuel.

Photo of a Biogas plant

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy harnesses energy from oceanic tides to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across inlets to trap water during high tide. As the tide recedes outside, the trapped water flows back through a turbine to generate power. Ideal locations in India for utilising tidal energy include the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kuchchh (Gujarat) and the Gangetic delta region in Sunderbans (West Bengal).

Geo Thermal Energy

Geothermal energy uses the heat from the Earth's interior to produce heat or electricity. The Earth's temperature increases with depth. In areas with a high geothermal gradient, hot temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater absorbing this heat becomes hot and may turn into steam as it rises to the surface. This steam can drive turbines for electricity generation.

India has numerous hot springs with potential for geothermal energy. Experimental projects have been set up in the Parvati valley (near Manikarn, Himachal Pradesh) and Puga Valley (Ladakh) to harness this energy.

Conservation Of Energy Resources

Energy is a fundamental requirement for economic development across all sectors – agriculture, industry, transport, commercial, and domestic. India's development plans have necessitated increasing energy consumption. This steady rise in energy use nationwide highlights the urgent need for a sustainable path of energy development.

The strategy for sustainable energy development involves two main components: promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources. India is currently not among the most energy-efficient countries, requiring a careful approach to using limited energy resources judiciously. As conscious citizens, actions like using public transport, switching off lights when not needed, using power-saving devices, and adopting non-conventional energy sources contribute to conservation. The principle "energy saved is energy produced" underscores the value of conservation efforts.