Chapter 2 Human Settlements

Human Settlements

A human settlement is essentially a cluster of dwellings or structures where people live together. It represents the grouping of individuals and the associated allocation of territory to serve as their economic support base.

Settlements exhibit significant variation in size and type, ranging from small clusters of a few houses to vast metropolitan areas. As settlements increase in size, their economic activities, social structures, ecological impact, and technological complexity also change.

Settlements can be small and spread far apart, or large and located close together. Typically, small, sparsely distributed settlements are referred to as villages, where the primary economic focus is on agriculture or other primary activities. Larger, less numerous settlements are called urban settlements, which specialize predominantly in secondary (manufacturing) and tertiary (service) activities.

Key differences between rural and urban settlements include:

• Economic Base: Rural settlements primarily depend on land-based primary activities (farming, fishing, forestry) for their sustenance. Urban settlements rely on processing raw materials, manufacturing goods, and providing a wide array of services.
• Function: Cities (urban centers) act as crucial nodes of economic growth. They provide manufactured goods and specialized services not only to their own residents but also to the surrounding rural areas (hinterlands). In turn, rural areas supply food and raw materials to the urban centers. This interdependence is facilitated by transportation and communication networks.
• Social Characteristics: Rural settlements often feature more intimate social relationships due to lower mobility and close community ties. Urban areas, conversely, are characterised by a faster-paced, more complex way of life with more formal and less personal social interactions.

Types Of Rural Settlement

The arrangement and spacing of houses in rural areas determine the type of settlement pattern. This is influenced by factors like the amount of built-up area and the distance between individual houses. While compact or clustered villages are common in many parts of India, particularly the northern plains, variations exist due to several factors:

• Physical Features: The nature of the land (terrain), altitude, climate, and availability of water significantly influence where and how settlements are built.
• Cultural and Ethnic Factors: Social structure, caste divisions, and religious practices can lead to specific arrangements of housing and community clustering.
• Security Factors: Historically, the need for defense against theft, robbery, or other threats could encourage people to live closely together in compact settlements.

Based on these influences, rural settlements in India are broadly classified into four types:

Clustered Settlements

Also known as agglomerated or nucleated settlements, these are characterised by a compact and densely built-up area where houses are constructed very close to each other. The residential area is typically distinct from the surrounding agricultural fields, barns, and pastures. The layout of houses and streets often forms a recognisable pattern, such as rectangular, radial, or linear shapes. These settlements are commonly found in fertile alluvial plains and in northeastern Indian states. Security concerns can also lead to clustered villages, as seen in the Bundelkhand region or Nagaland. In water-scarce areas like Rajasthan, clustering allows for the efficient shared use of limited water resources.

Semi-Clustered Settlements

These settlements show a partial tendency towards clustering, often resulting in a fragmented pattern. They can arise from the growth of a dispersed settlement in a limited area or, more commonly, from the segregation of a previously large, compact village. In the latter case, certain groups within the village community, often those from lower social strata or performing specific tasks, might choose or be compelled to reside slightly apart from the main, centrally located cluster, which is typically occupied by the land-owning or dominant community. This pattern is frequently observed in the Gujarat plain and parts of Rajasthan.

Hamleted Settlements

A large village that is physically broken down into several smaller, separate units is called a hamleted settlement. These distinct units might be spread over an area but share a common name for the entire settlement. Locally, these segments are known by various names such as panna, para, palli, nagla, or dhani. The fragmentation is frequently driven by social and ethnic divisions within the community. Hamleted villages are often found in the middle and lower parts of the Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh, and the lower valleys of the Himalayas.

Dispersed Settlements

Dispersed or isolated settlements are characterized by dwellings that are spread out individually or in very small clusters of just a few huts. These are typically located in remote or difficult terrains such as dense jungles, on hillsides, or on farms or pastures scattered over a wide area. Extreme fragmentation of the landscape or resource base of habitable areas often contributes to this pattern of isolation. Examples of regions with dispersed settlements in India include parts of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala.

Urban Settlements

In contrast to rural settlements, urban settlements are generally larger in size and more compact in terms of built-up area. Their economic base is primarily non-agricultural, focusing on secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services), and administrative functions.

Cities and towns are not isolated entities; they are functionally interconnected with the surrounding rural areas and with other urban centers. This connection facilitates the exchange of goods and services. This interaction can be direct or mediated through a hierarchy of market towns.

The Census of India defines urban settlements based on specific criteria to distinguish them from rural areas. As per the 1991 Census definition (which sets the framework for classification, though criteria can be updated in subsequent censuses), a place is considered urban if it meets any of the following:

• It has a municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified town area committee (known as Statutory Towns).
• It satisfies three demographic and economic criteria (known as Census Towns):
  1. A minimum population of 5,000 persons.
  2. At least 75% of the male main working population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.
  3. A density of population of at least 400 persons per square kilometer.

Evolution Of Towns In India

Urban centers in India have a long history, dating back to prehistoric times with the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa, Mohenjodaro). Indian towns have undergone various phases of growth and decline influenced by historical periods and ruling powers.

Ancient Towns

India has numerous towns with historical roots extending over 2000 years. Many of these developed as significant centers of religion, culture, and learning. Varanasi is a prominent example of an ancient town. Other examples include Prayag (modern Allahabad), Pataliputra (modern Patna), and Madurai.

Medieval Towns

Roughly a hundred of India's existing towns originated during the medieval period. These towns often served as the administrative headquarters of kingdoms and principalities. Many were built as fortified towns, sometimes constructed on the ruins of earlier ancient settlements. Notable medieval towns include Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra, and Nagpur.

Modern Towns

The modern phase of urban development in India began with the arrival and consolidation of European powers, particularly the British. European traders initially established trading posts on coastal locations, which grew into port towns like Surat, Daman, Goa, and Pondicherry.

The British strategically developed three main centers: Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta). These were built in a distinct British architectural style and served as key administrative and economic hubs.

As British influence expanded inland, they established administrative centers, developed hill towns as summer retreats (due to their cooler climate), and added new civic and military areas to existing or new towns.

Towns based on modern industrial activities also started to emerge after 1850, with Jamshedpur being a prime example of an industrial town developed during this period.

Post-independence, urban development continued with the establishment of new towns serving as administrative capitals for states (e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur) and major industrial centers (e.g., Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni). Some older towns located near large metropolitan areas developed as satellite towns, serving as residential or industrial suburbs (e.g., Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurugram around Delhi). Increased investment and development initiatives across the country have also led to the growth of numerous medium and small towns.

Urbanisation In India

Urbanisation refers to the process by which an increasing proportion of a country's population lives in urban areas. The level of urbanisation is commonly measured as the percentage of the total population residing in urban settlements.

In India, the level of urbanisation stood at 31.16% in 2011. This is considered relatively low when compared to many developed countries, where the urban population percentage is significantly higher.

Despite the relatively low level, India's urban population has grown dramatically over the past century, increasing eleven-fold. Both the expansion of existing urban centers and the designation of new towns have contributed significantly to this growth.

The trend of urbanisation in India has seen fluctuations over time. While the total urban population has risen steadily, the *rate* of urbanisation (percentage increase in urban population per decade) has shown a tendency to slow down in the last two decades compared to the rapid growth experienced in earlier periods, particularly mid-20th century.

Functional Classification Of Towns

Beyond serving as central places for surrounding areas, urban centers often develop specialised economic and administrative functions. Many towns and cities become known for their dominant activities, leading to a functional classification.

While most towns perform multiple functions, they can be broadly categorised based on their most prominent or specialised role:

Administrative Towns And Cities

These towns serve as the headquarters for governmental administration at a higher level (state capitals, district headquarters, etc.). Examples include Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur, and Chennai.

Industrial Towns

Towns where industries are the primary economic driving force, providing the majority of employment and shaping the urban character. Examples include Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, and Bhilai.

Transport Cities

These towns are important nodes in the transportation network. They may be coastal ports facilitating export and import activities (e.g., Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam) or inland hubs connecting different transport routes (e.g., Agra, Dhulia, Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni).

Commercial Towns

Towns and cities where trade and commerce are the dominant economic activities. Examples include Kolkata, Saharanpur, and Satna.

Mining Towns

These towns have developed in areas rich in mineral deposits, with their existence and growth directly tied to mining activities. Examples are Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, and Singrauli.

Garrisson Cantonment Towns

These towns originated or developed primarily as military bases or cantonments, serving defence purposes. Examples include Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, and Udhampur.

Educational Towns

Towns that started or grew significantly as centers for education, often featuring major universities or large educational institutions. Examples are Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, and Allahabad.

Religious And Cultural Towns

Towns that gain prominence due to their significant religious or cultural importance, attracting pilgrims, tourists, and related activities. Examples include Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, and Haridwar.

Tourist Towns

Towns primarily known for being popular tourist destinations, attracting visitors due to their scenic beauty, climate, or recreational opportunities. Examples are Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), and Mount Abu.

It is important to note that urban functions are dynamic. As cities grow, particularly into large metropolises, they tend to become multifunctional. Industry, business, administration, transport, education, and other services all become significant, making it difficult to classify such large cities into a single functional category.

Smart Cities Mission

The Smart Cities Mission is a government initiative aimed at promoting sustainable and inclusive urban development. Its core objective is to enable cities to provide essential infrastructure, maintain a clean and sustainable environment, and improve the overall quality of life for their residents.

A key aspect of the mission is the application of 'smart solutions' using technology and data to enhance urban services and infrastructure. This includes making cities more resilient to disasters, optimizing resource usage, and providing more affordable and efficient services. The mission focuses on developing specific compact areas within selected cities as models that can be replicated elsewhere, acting as examples ('lighthouses') for other aspiring cities.

Exercises

The exercises section contains questions related to the concepts discussed in the chapter, including multiple choice questions, short answer questions, and analytical questions requiring detailed explanations.