Chapter 5 Mineral And Energy Resources

Introduction

India possesses a diverse range of mineral resources due to its varied geological history and structure. These mineral resources are fundamental for the country's industrial development.

Origin And Location

A significant portion of India's valuable mineral wealth, especially metallic minerals, originated during the pre-Palaeozoic era and is primarily associated with the ancient metamorphic and igneous rocks found in the Peninsular part of the country. In contrast, the extensive alluvial plains of North India are generally lacking in minerals of economic significance.

Definition Of Mineral

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, which can be of organic or inorganic origin, possessing definite chemical composition and physical properties.

Types Of Mineral Resources

Minerals can be broadly classified based on their chemical and physical characteristics.

Classification Scheme

Minerals are typically grouped into two main categories:

Characteristics Of Minerals

Minerals possess certain inherent characteristics:

• Uneven Distribution: Minerals are not found uniformly across the Earth's surface; their occurrence is concentrated in specific geographical areas.
• Inverse Quality-Quantity Relationship: Generally, minerals of higher quality are found in smaller quantities compared to lower quality minerals, which are more abundant.
• Exhaustibility: All minerals are finite and non-renewable resources. They take extremely long geological periods to form and cannot be quickly replenished once extracted. Therefore, they must be conserved and used judiciously.

Distribution Of Minerals In India

Minerals in India are not evenly spread but are largely concentrated in specific belts. Most metallic minerals are found in the peninsular plateau within ancient crystalline rocks.

Major Mineral Belts

India's mineral resources are primarily concentrated in three broad belts:

• The North-Eastern Plateau Region: This is arguably the richest mineral belt, covering areas of Jharkhand (Chhotanagpur), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and parts of Chhattisgarh. It is abundant in a variety of minerals including iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica. This rich resource base explains the concentration of major iron and steel industries in this region.
• The South-Western Plateau Region: This belt extends across Karnataka, Goa, contiguous parts of Tamil Nadu uplands, and Kerala. It is particularly rich in ferrous metals (like high-grade iron ore, manganese) and bauxite. Limestone deposits are also significant. However, this belt is deficient in coal resources, except for lignite deposits found in Neyveli (Tamil Nadu). Mineral diversity is less compared to the North-Eastern belt. Kerala also has unique deposits like monazite and thorium, and bauxite clay, while Goa is known for iron ore.
• The North-Western Region: This belt stretches along the Aravali range in Rajasthan and extends into parts of Gujarat. Minerals here are associated with the Dharwar system of rocks. This region is a major source of non-ferrous metals like copper and zinc. Rajasthan is also famous for its rich deposits of building stones (sandstone, granite, marble), gypsum, and Fuller's earth. Dolomite and limestone from this region supply raw materials for the cement industry. Gujarat is known for its significant petroleum deposits, and both Gujarat and Rajasthan have substantial salt resources.

Other Mineral Occurrences

Besides the major belts, minerals are found in other areas:

• The Himalayan Belt: This region is known to contain occurrences of copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten, found in both the eastern and western parts of the Himalayas. However, extraction is often challenging due to rugged terrain.
• Assam Valley: This region possesses deposits of mineral oil.
• Off-shore Areas near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High): Significant reserves of petroleum have been discovered and extracted from this offshore region in the Arabian Sea since the 1970s. New reserves have also been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins on the East Coast.

In terms of spatial pattern, most of India's major mineral resources are concentrated to the east of an imaginary line connecting Mangaluru on the west coast and Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh.

Ferrous Minerals

Ferrous minerals, containing iron, are crucial as they provide the necessary base for the development of metallurgical industries, particularly iron and steel. India is well-endowed with ferrous minerals, both in terms of reserves and production.

Iron Ore

India has abundant iron ore resources and holds the largest reserves in Asia. The primary types of iron ore found are haematite and magnetite, both of which are highly valued in international markets due to their quality. Iron ore mines in India are often conveniently located near coal fields, particularly in the north-eastern plateau region, which benefits the steel industry by reducing transport costs for key raw materials.

Over 95% of India's iron ore reserves are found across states including Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

• Odisha: Major deposits in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, and Jhar districts. Important mines include Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar, Kiruburu, and Bonai.
• Jharkhand: Home to some of the oldest iron ore mines (e.g., Noamundi, Gua in Singhbhum districts), located near existing iron and steel plants. This belt extends into Chhattisgarh.
• Chhattisgarh: Important mines like Dalli and Rajhara in Durg district and extensive deposits in the Dantewara and Bailadila region.
• Karnataka: Deposits in the Sandur-Hospet area (Ballari), Baba Budan hills and Kudremukh (Chikkamagaluru), and parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg, and Tumakuru districts.
• Other regions: Include Chandrapur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra; Karimnagar and Warangal in Telangana; Kurnool, Cuddapah, and Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh; and Salem and Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu. Goa has also become a significant iron ore producer.

Manganese

Manganese is essential as a raw material for smelting iron ore and is widely used in manufacturing ferroalloys (alloys of iron with other elements). Manganese deposits are found in most geological formations, but are particularly associated with the Dharwar system of rocks.

Madhya Pradesh and Odisha are the leading producers of manganese. In Odisha, major mines are in the central part of the iron ore belt (Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir). Madhya Pradesh's belt extends across Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and Jhabua districts.

Karnataka is another major producer, with mines in Dharwar, Ballari, Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru, Shivamogga, Chitradurg, and Tumakuru districts. Maharashtra also contributes significantly, mining in Nagpur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri districts, though these mines' distance from steel plants can be a disadvantage. Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are minor producers.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Non-ferrous metallic minerals are those that do not contain iron. India is relatively less endowed with most non-ferrous metallic minerals, with bauxite being a notable exception.

Bauxite

Bauxite is the primary ore used for producing aluminium. It is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks. These rocks are common on plateaus or hill ranges of peninsular India and in coastal areas.

Odisha is the largest producer of bauxite, with leading production in Kalahandi and Sambalpur, and increasing production in Bolangir and Koraput. Rich deposits are also found in the patlands of Lohardaga in Jharkhand. Other major producing states include Gujarat (major deposits in Bhavanagar and Jamnagar), Chhattisgarh (Amarkantak plateau), Madhya Pradesh (Katni-Jabalpur, Balaghat), and Maharashtra (Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune, Kolhapur). Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Goa are minor bauxite producers.

Copper

Copper is highly valued for its properties as an excellent conductor of electricity, making it indispensable in the electrical industry for wires, motors, transformers, and generators. It is also malleable, ductile, and alloyable, often mixed with gold to increase its strength for jewellery.

Major copper deposits in India are located in Singhbhum district (Jharkhand), Balaghat district (Madhya Pradesh), and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts (Rajasthan). Minor production comes from Agnigundala (Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg and Hasan districts (Karnataka), and South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).

Non-Metallic Minerals

Non-metallic minerals do not yield metals. They are either organic, derived from fossil fuels, or inorganic, such as mica and limestone.

Mica

Mica is a significant non-metallic mineral known for its ability to be split into very thin, tough, and flexible sheets. Its main use is in the electrical and electronic industries due to its insulating properties.

In India, mica is primarily produced in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan, with smaller production in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh. High-quality mica is found in a belt in the lower Hazaribagh plateau in Jharkhand (approx. 150 km long, 22 km wide). Andhra Pradesh's Nellore district is known for producing the best quality mica. In Rajasthan, a mica belt extends for about 320 km from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur. Other deposits are in Karnataka (Mysuru, Hasan), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai, Kanniyakumari), Kerala (Alleppey), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), and West Bengal (Purulia, Bankura).

Limestone, Dolomite And Phosphate

Besides mica, other important non-metallic minerals extracted in India, mainly for local consumption, include limestone, dolomite, and phosphate. Limestone and dolomite are crucial raw materials for the cement industry, while phosphate is used in fertiliser production.

Energy Resources

Energy resources are vital for power generation, supporting agriculture, industry, transport, and all other sectors of the economy. They are primarily derived from mineral fuels, which are categorised as conventional or non-conventional sources.

Conventional Sources (Exhaustible)

Conventional energy sources are those that have been traditionally used and are exhaustible over time. These include fossil fuels and nuclear energy minerals.

Coal

Coal is a key mineral fuel used mainly for generating thermal power and in smelting iron ore. It occurs in rock sequences from two main geological periods: Gondwana and Tertiary deposits.

• Gondwana Coal: Accounts for about 80% of India's coal deposits. It is mostly bituminous and non-coking grade. Important fields are in the Damodar Valley (Jharkhand-Bengal belt), including Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, and Karanpura. Jharia is the largest field. Other Gondwana fields are found in the Godavari, Mahanadi, and Sone river valleys (Singrauli in MP/UP, Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher/Rampur in Odisha, Chanda-Wardha/Kamptee/Bander in Maharashtra, Singareni in Telangana, Pandur in Andhra Pradesh).
• Tertiary Coal: Occurs in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Nagaland. Extracted from areas like Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong, Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur, Nazira (Assam); Namchik-Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh); and Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir).
• Lignite (Brown Coal): Lower grade coal found in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu (Neyveli is significant), Puducherry, Gujarat, and Jammu and Kashmir.

Petroleum

Crude petroleum is a vital energy source for internal combustion engines in vehicles. It consists of hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous states and varies in composition. Its numerous by-products are raw materials for petrochemical industries, producing fertilizers, synthetic fibers, medicines, and various other products. Due to its scarcity and wide-ranging uses, petroleum is often referred to as "liquid gold".

Crude petroleum is found in sedimentary rocks from the tertiary geological period. Systematic exploration and production began after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was established in 1956. Before this, Digboi in Assam was the only producing region. New deposits have been found in western and eastern parts of the country.

• Assam: Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran are important oil-producing areas.
• Gujarat: Major fields include Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba, and Lunej.
• Mumbai High: A major offshore field located 160 km off the Mumbai coast, discovered in 1973, commenced production in 1976.
• East Coast: New deposits have been found in exploratory wells in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

Crude oil extracted from wells contains impurities and needs refining. Refineries separate crude oil into various usable products. India has field-based refineries (located near oil fields, e.g., Digboi) and market-based refineries (located near consumption centers, e.g., Barauni).

Natural Gas

Natural gas is often found associated with petroleum deposits and is released during crude oil extraction. It serves as a versatile fuel for domestic and industrial use, power generation, and as a raw material in various industries (chemical, petrochemical, fertilizer). With expanding pipeline infrastructure, natural gas is increasingly used as Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for vehicles and Piped Natural Gas (PNG) for households.

India's major natural gas reserves are located along the west coast in the Mumbai High fields and connected areas, supplemented by finds in the Cambay basin. On the East Coast, significant new reserves have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin.

GAIL (India) has developed a network of cross-country natural gas pipelines under the concept of 'One Nation One Grid' to transport natural gas across the country.

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Non-conventional energy sources are renewable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly alternatives to exhaustible conventional fuels. These sources are more widely distributed and can provide energy without depleting finite resources.

Nuclear Energy Resources

Nuclear energy generation has become a viable power source using minerals like uranium and thorium. Uranium deposits are found in Dharwar rocks, occurring in various locations including the Singbhum Copper belt, parts of Rajasthan (Udaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu), Chhattisgarh (Durg), Maharashtra (Bhandara), and Himachal Pradesh (Kullu). Thorium is primarily extracted from minerals like monazite and ilmenite found in beach sands along the coasts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, with the world's richest monazite deposits in Kerala (Palakkad, Kollam) and near Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and the Mahanadi river delta (Odisha).

India established the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948 and the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay (now Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) in 1954 to develop nuclear technology. Important nuclear power plants operate at Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka), and Kakarapara (Gujarat).

Solar Energy

Solar energy harnesses sunlight. Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity, while solar thermal technology uses sunlight for heating. Solar thermal technology is competitive, environmentally friendly, and easy to deploy, used in applications like water heaters, crop dryers, and cookers. India, particularly the western parts like Gujarat and Rajasthan, has significant potential for solar energy development due to high solar radiation.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is a clean, inexhaustible source. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy. Persistent wind systems (trade winds, westerlies, monsoons) and local winds (land/sea breezes) can be used. India has developed wind energy capacity, with favourable conditions and significant potential in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

Tidal And Wave Energy

Ocean currents, tides, and waves contain vast amounts of energy. While efforts to tap this energy date back centuries, India has particular potential for tidal energy along its coasts, though it is not yet extensively utilised.

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy utilizes the heat from within the Earth. This heat can be tapped where magma is close to the surface or from hot water gushing out as geysers. This heat can be converted into electrical energy or used directly for heating. Hot springs and geysers have been used since medieval times. In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh. Geothermal energy is considered a promising alternative source.

Bio-Energy

Bio-energy is produced from organic matter, including agricultural residues, municipal waste, industrial waste, and other biological products. It can be converted into electrical energy, heat, or cooking gas. Bio-energy projects also help process waste, reducing pollution. This source has potential to improve rural economies, enhance self-reliance, and reduce pressure on traditional fuelwood sources in developing countries. An example in India is the Okhla plant in Delhi converting municipal waste to energy.

Conservation Of Mineral Resources

Minerals are finite, exhaustible resources that take immense geological time to form. Their conservation is crucial for sustainable development, integrating economic growth with environmental protection for future generations.

Need For Conservation

Traditional resource use methods often generate significant waste and environmental problems. Since minerals cannot be replenished, they must be used efficiently and conserved to ensure their availability for a longer period.

Methods For Conservation

• Development of Alternative Energy Sources: Investing in and developing inexhaustible, renewable energy sources like solar, wind, tidal, wave, and geothermal energy is essential to reduce reliance on exhaustible fossil fuels and nuclear minerals.
• Recycling of Metals: Using scrap metals to recycle minerals, particularly for metals like copper, lead, and zinc, where India has limited reserves. This extends the lifespan of existing metal stocks.
• Use of Substitutes: Developing and utilising alternative materials to replace scarce minerals can help reduce their consumption.
• Controlling Export of Strategic Minerals: Reducing or regulating the export of strategically important and scarce minerals ensures that existing reserves are available for domestic use over a longer duration.