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Chapter 9 Geographical Perspective On Selected Issues And Problems
Environmental Pollution
Environmental pollution refers to the contamination of the environment by substances and energy released as waste products from human activities. These pollutants can be transported and spread through various media, leading to different types of pollution.
Pollution Types
Based on the medium through which pollutants are transported, pollution is classified into:
- Air pollution
- Water pollution
- Land pollution
- Noise pollution
Each type of pollution involves specific pollutants and originates from distinct sources.
| Pollution Types | Pollutants Involved | Sources of Pollution |
|---|---|---|
| Air Pollution | Oxides of sulphur ($\text{SO}_2$, $\text{SO}_3$), Oxides of nitrogen ($\text{NO}_\text{x}$), carbon monoxide ($\text{CO}$), hydrocarbons, ammonia ($\text{NH}_3$), lead ($\text{Pb}$), aldehydes, asbestos, beryllium ($\text{Be}$). | Combustion of coal, petrol, and diesel; industrial processes; disposal of solid waste and sewage. |
| Water Pollution | Odour, dissolved/suspended solids, ammonia ($\text{NH}_3$)/urea, nitrate ($\text{NO}_3^-$)/nitrites ($\text{NO}_2^-$), chloride ($\text{Cl}^-$), fluoride ($\text{F}^-$), carbonates ($\text{CO}_3^{2-}$), oil and grease, insecticide/pesticide residue, tannin, coliform bacteria, sulphates ($\text{SO}_4^{2-}$)/sulphides ($\text{S}^{2-}$), heavy metals (e.g., lead, arsenic, mercury, manganese), radioactive substances. | Disposal of sewage and urban runoff; toxic effluents from industries; agricultural runoff; nuclear power plants. |
| Land Pollution | Human and animal excreta, viruses, bacteria, garbage and associated vectors (flies, rodents); pesticide/fertiliser residue, alkalinity, fluorides ($\text{F}^-$), radioactive substances. | Improper human activities (waste disposal), disposal of untreated industrial waste, overuse of pesticides and fertilisers in agriculture. |
| Noise Pollution | High levels of noise above human tolerance level. | Aircraft, automobiles, trains, industrial processes, advertising media (loudspeakers). |
Water Pollution
The quality of water has significantly deteriorated due to the widespread use of water by a growing population and expanding industries. Surface water, from rivers, lakes, and canals, is naturally impure but becomes polluted when the concentration of unwanted substances increases beyond the water's self-purifying capacity, making it unfit for use.
Pollution Sources
While natural sources (like erosion and decay) contribute to water impurities, pollutants from human activities are the main concern. Industries are the most significant polluters, releasing wastes, contaminated water, poisonous gases, chemicals, heavy metals, dust, and smoke. Most industrial waste is discharged into rivers or lakes, contaminating water bodies and harming their ecosystems. Key water-polluting industries include leather, pulp and paper, textiles, and chemicals.
Modern agriculture also contributes through the use of chemicals like inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. These are washed into water bodies or seep into groundwater, increasing nitrate content in surface water. Cultural activities such as pilgrimages, religious fairs, and tourism near water bodies also cause pollution.
Consequently, almost all surface water sources in India are contaminated and considered unsafe for direct human consumption.
| River and State | Polluted Stretches | Nature of Pollution | Main Polluters |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ganga (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal) | (a) Downstream of Kanpur | 1. Industrial pollution (from towns like Kanpur) 2. Domestic wastes (from urban centres) 3. Dumping of carcasses into the river |
Cities of Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata releasing domestic waste. |
| (b) Downstream of Varanasi | |||
| (c) Farakka Barrage | |||
| Yamuna (Delhi and Uttar Pradesh) | (a) Delhi to confluence with Chambal | 1. Extraction of water by Haryana and Uttar Pradesh for irrigation (reducing flow) 2. Agricultural run-off (adding micro-pollutants) 3. Domestic and industrial waste from Delhi flowing into the river |
Delhi dumping its domestic waste. |
| (b) Mathura and Agra |
Health Impacts
Contaminated water is a major source of water-borne diseases. Common illnesses resulting from using unsafe water include diarrhoea, intestinal worms, and hepatitis. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately one-fourth of communicable diseases in India are water-borne.
Pollution affects all rivers, but the pollution of the Ganga, flowing through one of India's most densely populated regions, is a significant concern.
Namami Gange Programme
Recognizing the national importance of the Ganga and the need to clean its waters, the Indian Union Government launched the 'Namami Gange Programme'. This initiative aims to effectively control pollution and restore the river through several measures:
- Developing sewerage treatment systems in towns located along the river.
- Monitoring and controlling industrial effluents discharged into the river.
- Developing the riverfront infrastructure.
- Undertaking afforestation along the river banks to increase biodiversity and prevent erosion.
- Cleaning the river surface from floating waste.
- Developing 'Ganga Grams' (villages along the Ganga) in Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal to promote sanitation and river conservation.
- Creating public awareness to discourage activities that pollute the river, including ritualistic dumping of materials.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is defined as the introduction of contaminants into the atmosphere (dust, fumes, gases, smoke, etc.) in quantities and durations that can harm living organisms (flora and fauna) and property. The increasing reliance on various fuels as energy sources has led to a marked rise in the emission of toxic gases.
Sources And Pollutants
The main sources of air pollution include the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, petrol, diesel), mining activities, and various industrial processes. These release primary air pollutants such as oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, and asbestos.
Health Impacts
Air pollution is linked to various health problems, affecting the respiratory, nervous, and circulatory systems.
Smoky Fog (Urban Smog)
A common manifestation of air pollution in cities is urban smog, a smoky fog formed by the combination of smoke and fog, often exacerbated by atmospheric pollutants. Smog is harmful to human health.
Acid Rains
Air pollution can also lead to acid rain. Emissions of sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides from industrial and combustion processes react in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids, which fall to the Earth's surface in precipitation. Analysis of rainwater in urban environments often shows a lower pH value (higher acidity) in the first rain after a dry period, indicating the washing out of accumulated atmospheric pollutants.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the presence of noise at levels that are unbearable or uncomfortable for human beings. It has become a serious concern in recent years, primarily due to technological advancements leading to increased noise from various sources.
Sources Of Noise Pollution
Major sources of noise pollution include factories, mechanised construction and demolition work, automobiles, and aircraft. Periodic, but intense noise can also come from sirens, loudspeakers used during festivals, and community events. The level of steady noise is measured in decibels (dB).
Traffic Noise
Traffic noise from roads (automobiles), railways (trains), and airways (aircraft) is often the biggest source of nuisance, especially in urban areas. The intensity and nature of traffic noise depend on factors like vehicle type, condition of roads and vehicles, and the volume of traffic. In sea transport, noise pollution is mainly concentrated in harbors during loading and unloading activities.
Industries Noise
Industries also contribute to noise pollution, with intensity varying based on the type of industrial activity.
Location Specific Nature
Noise pollution is typically location-specific; its intensity is highest near the source (factories, transport arteries, airports) and decreases as distance from the source increases.
Urban Waste Disposal
Urban areas in India often face significant problems due to overcrowding, congestion, and inadequate infrastructure and services to support rapid population growth. This leads to poor sanitary conditions and environmental pollution, particularly from solid waste.
Solid Waste Definition And Sources
Solid waste refers to discarded solid materials, including old and used items, metal pieces, broken glass, plastic containers, polythene bags, ash, electronic waste (floppies, CDs), etc., dumped at various locations. These discarded materials are also known as refuse, garbage, or rubbish.
Solid waste is generated from two main sources:
- Household or Domestic Establishments: Waste generated from homes.
- Industrial or Commercial Establishments: Waste generated from factories, shops, offices, etc.
Household waste is typically disposed of on public lands or private collection sites. Industrial solid waste (ashes, debris) is collected and disposed of through public (municipal) facilities, often in low-lying landfill areas.
Health Hazards From Solid Waste
Accumulated solid waste poses serious health hazards. It creates obnoxious smells and provides breeding grounds for flies and rodents, which carry diseases such as typhoid, diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria, and cholera. Wastes can also cause frequent nuisance if carelessly handled, spread by wind, or washed by rain water.
Industrial Wastes
Concentration of industrial units near urban centers generates significant amounts of industrial waste. Improper disposal of this waste, particularly dumping into rivers, contributes heavily to water pollution. Pollution from city-based industries and untreated sewage flowing into rivers downstream creates serious health problems for populations relying on these water sources.
Problem In India
Urban waste disposal is a critical problem in India. While metropolitan cities manage to collect and dispose of a large proportion (around 90%) of the solid waste generated, many smaller cities and towns collect only 30% to 50% of the waste. The remaining uncollected waste accumulates in streets, open spaces, and wastelands, leading to significant health hazards.
Waste As Resource
Instead of merely disposing of waste, it should be viewed as a potential resource. Untreated organic waste ferments, releasing toxic biogas (including methane). Waste can be treated to generate energy or compost, which can be used as fertilizer.
Case Study: A Role Model to Restore the Ecology and Safeguard Human Health in Daurala
Daurala, a village near Meerut, faced severe groundwater contamination from heavy metals due to untreated wastewater from local industries leaching into the groundwater table. Following the principle of "Polluter Pays", a Meerut-based NGO initiated efforts in 2003 to restore the ecology and safeguard human health with community participation.
The NGO conducted health surveys, highlighting the pitiable condition of residents. A collaborative approach involving industry officials, NGOs, government officials, and local residents was undertaken to find sustainable solutions. Industries showed interest in addressing the ecological damage.
Answer:
Efforts bore fruit over three years. Measures included enhancing the village's overhead water tank capacity and laying extra pipelines to ensure a supply of potable water. The silted village pond was cleaned and desilted, significantly increasing its water holding capacity and recharging the aquifers. Rainwater harvesting structures were built at various locations to dilute groundwater contaminants after monsoons. Additionally, 1000 trees were planted, improving the local environment.
This case study demonstrates how collaboration between industries, NGOs, government, and the local community, guided by scientific findings and public pressure, can lead to successful ecological restoration and improvement of public health in areas affected by industrial pollution.
Rural-Urban Migration
Rural-urban migration, the movement of people from villages to cities, is a significant demographic phenomenon driven by various factors.
Factors Causing Migration
Migration is primarily influenced by a combination of 'push' factors in rural areas and 'pull' factors in urban areas:
- Push Factors (Rural): Low job opportunities, lack of basic amenities, socio-economic backwardness, natural disasters, and an unbalanced pattern of development between rural and urban areas.
- Pull Factors (Urban): High demand for labor (particularly in construction and informal sectors), better employment opportunities, perceived higher wages, availability of educational and medical facilities, and the attraction of city life.
Population Growth In Cities
As a result of migration, urban populations, especially in large cities (mega cities), are growing rapidly in India. Due to limited opportunities in smaller and medium-sized towns, many poor rural migrants bypass these centers and move directly to mega cities in search of livelihoods.
Case Study
A Case Study: Ramesh's Story
Ramesh, a welder, migrated from his village due to poverty and lack of opportunities. His family struggled to survive on a small piece of land, and he had to drop out of school. Inspired by successful migrants from his village, he moved to Ludhiana for work but earned a meagre wage and struggled to adapt. He then moved to Surat, learned welding skills, and has since worked across various cities with a contractor, including Talcher, Surat, Mumbai, Gandhinagar, Bharuch, and Jamnagar.
He sends $\textsf{₹}20,000$ per year to his father, which has significantly improved his family's standard of living in the village, covering daily expenses, healthcare, schooling, and even land purchases and house building.
Answer:
Ramesh's story highlights several aspects of rural-urban migration in India: poverty as a major push factor, the search for livelihoods in urban centers, the role of social networks (friends, contractors) in facilitating migration, the acquisition of new skills in urban areas, and the significant impact of remittances on improving the living standards of families left behind in rural areas. However, it also points to the challenges faced by migrants, such as low wages in the informal sector, difficulty in assimilation, and the pain of separation from family due to the temporary or transferable nature of jobs.
Comments
In developing countries like India, rural-urban migration is often dominated by males who are poor, semi-literate, and unskilled. They frequently find low-paid, risky, menial jobs in the informal sector in urban areas. Since wages are often insufficient to support the entire family at the destination, spouses and children typically remain in the rural areas, leading to a predominantly male migration stream. Remittances sent back by these migrants play a crucial role in supporting their families' economic conditions in the villages.
As urban populations continue to grow globally (projected to reach 68% by 2050), governments face increasing pressure to enhance urban infrastructure and services to ensure a desirable quality of life. In India, urban growth is driven by natural increase, net in-migration (especially from rural areas), and the reclassification of rural settlements into urban areas. Rural-urban migration accounts for a significant portion of urban growth.
Problems Of Slums
A major consequence of rapid and often unplanned rural-urban migration in India is the proliferation of slums. Migrants who cannot afford proper housing due to high costs of land and rent in urban areas are forced to live in environmentally incompatible and degraded areas, often on marginal or unoccupied lands.
Comparison With Rural Settlements
While villages in India were historically seen as relatively homogenous units, urban centers, in contrast, are highly differentiated in terms of socio-economic status, politico-cultural aspects, and developmental indicators. Urban areas feature affluent localities with advanced infrastructure alongside starkly contrasting areas like slums.
Slums As Residential Areas
Slums represent the worst possible residential areas. They are characterised by dilapidated housing structures, extremely poor hygienic conditions, inadequate ventilation, and a severe lack of basic amenities such as safe drinking water, electricity/light, and toilet facilities.
Health And Socio-Environmental Hazards
The living conditions in slums pose serious health and socio-environmental hazards. Overcrowding, open defecation due to lack of toilets, and unregulated drainage systems in narrow streets contribute to the spread of diseases and create unsanitary environments.
Economic Vulnerability
Most slum dwellers work in low-paid, unorganized, and often high-risk sectors of the urban economy (e.g., construction labor, domestic work, street vending, waste recycling). Consequently, they are frequently undernourished, prone to various diseases and illnesses, and lack adequate access to healthcare.
Poverty And Social Exclusion
The poverty faced by slum populations means they often cannot afford proper housing, nutrition, or education for their children. This economic vulnerability makes them susceptible to various social problems, including drug abuse, alcoholism, crime, and vandalism. Ultimately, these factors can lead to apathy, escapism, and significant social exclusion, marginalizing them within the urban society.
Case Study: Dharavi–Asia’s Largest Slum
Dharavi in Mumbai is often cited as an example of a large urban slum. It is difficult to access due to narrow lanes, with only one main road, often congested. Buildings are often temporary, two or three stories high, with single rooms accommodating large families in cramped conditions, resembling industrial dwellings of historical periods.
Despite the lack of infrastructure, uncollected garbage, stagnant foul water, and presence of pests like crows and rats, Dharavi is a hub of economic activity. Many valuable and useful articles are produced here, including ceramics, pottery, embroidery, leather goods, garments, metalwork, jewellery settings, wood carvings, and furniture, contributing significantly to Mumbai's economy.
Historically, Dharavi was a marshy area filled with waste, settled by migrants, including Scheduled Castes and poor Muslims. The area contains buildings used for hide treatment and tanning, contributing to pollution, but also includes less unpleasant parts.
Answer:
The description of Dharavi illustrates the paradoxical nature of many urban slums. Despite facing extreme deprivation, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and environmental hazards, they often serve as vibrant centers of informal economic activity and production, contributing significantly to the urban economy through low-cost labor and diverse manufacturing activities. The case highlights the challenging living conditions and environmental issues prevalent in such settlements, often located on degraded land, yet underscores the resilience and economic contribution of their inhabitants.
Swachh Bharat Mission (Sbm)
The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), launched by the Government of India as part of urban renewal efforts, aims to improve sanitation and hygiene across the country, including enhancing the quality of life in urban slums by addressing sanitation and waste management issues.
Land Degradation
Land degradation refers to the deterioration of the quality of land resources, leading to a decline in its productive capacity. It is exacerbated by the increasing pressure on limited agricultural land and unsustainable land use practices.
Causes And Processes
Land degradation occurs through various processes, including soil erosion (by water and wind), waterlogging, salinisation (increase in salt content), and alkalinisation (increase in alkali content) of the soil. If land is used continuously without proper management to maintain its fertility, its quality declines, and productivity falls. Land degradation can be a temporary or permanent decline in the land's ability to support vegetation or crops.
Degraded Land Versus Wasteland
While all degraded land might not be classified as wasteland, continuous and unchecked degradation can lead to land becoming wasteland, which is unproductive and unsuitable for cultivation without significant reclamation efforts.
Processes Inducing Land Degradation (Natural And Human)
Land degradation is caused by both natural processes and human activities. Natural processes include geological erosion, desertification (spread of desert-like conditions), and natural salinisation. Human activities, however, are often major drivers, including deforestation, overgrazing, unsustainable farming practices (intensive cultivation without proper nutrient management, excessive irrigation), mining, and industrial activities.
Using remote sensing techniques, organisations like the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) classify wastelands, often categorizing them based on the processes that created them.
Types Of Wastelands
Wastelands can be classified based on their primary cause:
- Primarily Caused by Natural Agents: Gullied/ravinous land (severe erosion by water), desertic or coastal sands, barren rocky areas, steep sloping land, glacial areas.
- Largely Caused by Natural as well as Human Factors: Waterlogged and marshy areas, land affected by salinity and alkalinity, land with or without scrub vegetation.
- Primarily Caused by Human Action: Degraded shifting cultivation areas, degraded land under plantation crops, degraded forests, degraded pastures, mining and industrial wastelands.
In India, wastelands resulting predominantly from human-induced processes are often more significant and widespread than those caused primarily by natural factors.
Case Study: Jhabua District
Case Study: Jhabua District
Jhabua is a backward district in Madhya Pradesh with a high concentration of tribal population (mostly Bhils). The region suffers from poverty exacerbated by severe resource degradation, including forests and land. Watershed management programmes, funded by government ministries, have been successfully implemented in Jhabua to combat land degradation and improve soil quality. These programs link land, water, and vegetation management with community participation to improve livelihoods.
A successful example is in the Petlawad block. The Bhil community here revitalized common property resources (CPRs). Each household planted and maintained a tree on common land, planted fodder grass on pasture land, and adopted social fencing to prevent open grazing. They are confident this will sustain their cattle in the future.
An interesting aspect was resolving a conflict over CPR encroachment by a villager from an adjoining area. Instead of punitive action, the community included the encroacher in their user group, sharing the benefits of the improved land.
Answer:
The Jhabua case study demonstrates the effectiveness of integrated watershed management programmes in addressing land degradation and poverty in backward, tribal areas. It highlights the crucial role of community participation and local initiatives in the successful management and regeneration of natural resources, particularly CPRs. By linking resource conservation with livelihood improvement and fostering community ownership and conflict resolution, these programs can lead to significant positive changes in both the environment and the socio-economic conditions of local populations.
Watershed Management Programmes
As seen in the Jhabua case, watershed management programmes are a key strategy for preventing further land degradation and improving the quality of land and soil resources. They involve planning and implementing measures to manage water, soil, and vegetation within a watershed, often focusing on preventing erosion, improving soil moisture, and regenerating vegetation cover.
Community Participation
Successful implementation of watershed management and land degradation control measures heavily relies on the active involvement and participation of the local community. As demonstrated in Jhabua, community ownership and collective action can effectively lead to the restoration and sustainable management of shared resources like CPRs.