Chapter 4 Political Parties

Why Do We Need Political Parties?

Political parties are among the most prominent institutions in a democracy, often equated with democracy itself by ordinary citizens. While widely recognized, they are also frequently criticized and blamed for problems in political life. This raises the question of whether political parties are truly necessary. Historically, few countries had political parties a century ago, whereas now almost all democracies have them, indicating their increased importance in the modern world.

Meaning

A political party is essentially a group of people who come together with the shared goal of contesting elections and holding power in the government. They operate based on agreed-upon policies and programs aimed at promoting the collective good. Recognizing that diverse views exist on what constitutes the collective good, parties strive to convince the public that their policies are superior and seek to implement them by winning elections and forming the government.

Parties reflect fundamental political divisions and involve **partisanship** (strong commitment to a party). A party is defined by its stance on issues, the policies it supports, and the interests it represents. Each political party typically consists of three main components: the leaders, the active members, and the followers.

Functions

Political parties perform several crucial functions that enable them to fill political offices and wield power:

1. Contest elections: Parties are the main actors in elections, nominating candidates to compete for political positions. Candidate selection methods vary between countries.
2. Present policies and programs: Parties offer voters a range of policy options and perspectives on key issues. They consolidate diverse opinions into a few major positions, shaping the government's agenda.
3. Play a decisive role in lawmaking: While laws are debated in the legislature, party members typically vote according to the party's direction, ensuring that party positions influence legislation.
4. Form and run governments: Parties recruit, train, and select leaders to become ministers and manage the government according to the party's agenda.
5. Act as opposition: Parties that lose elections serve as the opposition, criticizing the ruling party's failures and policies and mobilizing public dissent.
6. Shape public opinion: Parties raise and highlight issues, using their extensive networks of members and affiliated groups (pressure groups) to influence public discourse and mobilize movements.
7. Provide access to government and welfare schemes: Parties serve as a link between citizens and the government machinery, making it easier for ordinary people to access welfare programs and seek redress for their problems through local party leaders.

Parties must be responsive to public needs and demands; otherwise, they risk being voted out in the next election.

Necessity

The functions listed above underscore the necessity of political parties in modern democracies. To understand why democracies cannot exist without parties, consider a scenario without them: each candidate would be independent, making it impossible to promise collective policy changes. A government might be formed, but its ability to function effectively would be uncertain. Representatives would be accountable locally, but no one would be responsible for national governance.

Even in non-party based local elections (like panchayats), villages often divide into factions resembling parties. This demonstrates the inherent tendency for people to group together for political action. Political parties are thus found in almost all countries, regardless of their size, age, or level of development.

The emergence of political parties is closely tied to representative democracies. Large, complex societies require representative government, and parties fulfill the need for an agency to aggregate diverse views, present them to the government, bring representatives together to form a responsible government, and provide a mechanism for making and influencing policies.

How Many Parties Should We Have?

In a democracy, any group of citizens can form a political party. In India, over 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission. However, only a few effectively compete for power. The question is about the optimal number of major or effective parties for a democracy.

One-Party System

In some countries, only one party is allowed to rule, such as in China. While technically others might exist, the electoral system prevents free competition. One-party systems are not considered democratic because they don't offer voters a genuine choice.

Two-Party System

In a two-party system, power typically alternates between two main parties. Other parties may exist and win some seats, but only the two major parties have a realistic chance of forming the government with a majority. The United States and the United Kingdom are examples of two-party systems.

Multiparty System

When several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of forming a government, either independently or through alliances, it's a multiparty system. India has a multiparty system, where governments are often formed by parties joining together in a **coalition** (an alliance of two or more parties). When parties form an alliance to contest elections and gain power, it's called a front. Multiparty systems can sometimes appear messy and lead to political instability but offer representation to a wider range of interests and opinions.

Determining which system is 'better' is complex. Party systems evolve based on a country's social structure, regional divisions, history, and electoral system. No single system is ideal for all countries or situations. India's multiparty system reflects its large size and diverse social and geographical landscape, which cannot be easily accommodated by only two or three parties.

Popular Political Participation

Contrary to the perception that citizens are indifferent to political parties, evidence from India suggests a relatively high level of political participation. While trust in political parties may be low compared to other institutions (a global trend), the proportion of Indians reporting membership in or closeness to a political party has steadily increased over the last three decades, indicating significant citizen engagement.

National Parties

Federal democracies typically have two types of parties: those concentrated in one federal unit (state) and those present in several or all units. In India, the latter are called **national parties**. These parties have units in various states that generally adhere to the policies, programs, and strategies determined at the national level.

All political parties must register with the Election Commission of India. While all parties are treated equally, large and established parties are granted special facilities and recognition, such as a unique election symbol. These are called 'recognized political parties'. The Election Commission sets criteria for recognition based on the proportion of votes and seats secured in elections.

To be recognized as a **State party**, a party must secure at least 6% of the total votes and win at least two seats in a state Legislative Assembly election. To be recognized as a **national party**, a party must secure at least 6% of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly elections in four states and win at least four seats in the Lok Sabha.

As of 2023, there are six recognized national parties in India:

• Aam Aadmi Party (AAP): Formed in 2012, emphasizing accountability, clean governance, and transparency.
• Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP): Formed in 1984, representing Dalits, Adivasis, OBCs, and religious minorities, with a strong base in Uttar Pradesh.
• Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP): Founded in 1980, emphasizing cultural nationalism ('Hindutva') and a strong modern India, currently leading the ruling coalition at the Centre.
• Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M): Founded in 1964, believing in Marxism-Leninism and supporting socialism, secularism, and democracy, with support among the poor and workers.
• Indian National Congress (INC): Founded in 1885, one of the world's oldest parties, which played a dominant role in post-Independence India, now leading a major national alliance.
• National People's Party (NPP): Formed in 2013, the first national party from North East India, focusing on diversity and empowerment.

State Parties

Besides the national parties, most other major parties in India are classified as **State parties** or commonly referred to as **regional parties**. However, the term 'regional' doesn't always reflect their ideology or outlook. Some are nationwide parties that have found success only in certain states, like the Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal, which have national organizational structures but their influence is concentrated regionally. Others, like the Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front, Mizo National Front, and Telangana Rashtra Samithi, are more explicitly focused on their state identity.

Over the last three decades, the number and strength of these state parties have increased significantly, making the Indian Parliament politically more diverse. Until 2014, no single national party could secure a majority in the Lok Sabha on its own, compelling national parties to form alliances with state parties. Since 1996, many state parties have participated in national-level coalition governments, which has contributed to strengthening federalism and democracy in India by giving regional voices a share in national power.

Challenges To Political Parties

Given their central role, political parties are often the target of criticism for the perceived shortcomings of democracy. Globally, there is significant dissatisfaction with how parties function. In India, too, public criticism points to four main problem areas that parties must address to remain effective democratic instruments:

Lack Of Internal Democracy

A primary challenge is the tendency towards concentration of power in the hands of one or a few top leaders. Many parties lack internal democracy: they don't maintain membership registers, hold regular organizational meetings, or conduct internal elections properly. Ordinary members have limited access to information or influence over decisions, leaving leaders with disproportionate power. Loyalty to leaders often outweighs loyalty to party principles, making dissent difficult.

Dynastic Succession

Related to the lack of internal democracy is the challenge of dynastic succession. The absence of open procedures makes it hard for ordinary members to rise in the party hierarchy. Leaders often favor family members or close associates, leading to top positions being controlled by one family in many parties. This is unfair to other members and detrimental to democracy as it can place inexperienced or less popular individuals in positions of power, though this trend is present globally.

Money And Muscle Power

The growing role of money and criminal influence, especially during elections, poses a significant challenge. Parties, prioritizing winning, may use short-cuts, including nominating wealthy candidates or those with criminal connections who can mobilize resources or intimidate voters. Donations from rich individuals and corporations can also influence party policies and decisions. This increasing power of money and muscle in democratic politics is a global concern.

Meaningful Choice

Often, parties fail to offer voters genuinely different choices. As ideological differences decline globally, major parties may become very similar in their core policies, differing only on minor details. In India too, major parties show decreasing differences on economic policies. This leaves voters who desire significantly different policies with few options. The problem is exacerbated when the same leaders move between parties, limiting the choice of leadership as well.

How Can Parties Be Reformed?

Addressing the challenges requires reforming political parties. The question is whether parties are willing to reform themselves, if not, whether they can be forced to do so. Since parties are central to democracy and leaders come from parties, initiating reform is complex.

Efforts By Government And Courts

Recent efforts in India by the government and courts include:

• Anti-defection law: The Constitution was amended to prevent elected legislators (MLAs and MPs) from changing parties after election, especially for personal gain. If a legislator defects, they lose their seat. This has reduced defection but also made dissent within parties more difficult, forcing legislators to follow party leaders' directives.
• Affidavits on assets and criminal cases: The Supreme Court mandated candidates to file affidavits (sworn statements) detailing their property and criminal cases to reduce the influence of money and criminals. This increases public information but doesn't guarantee the truthfulness of the information or a decline in illicit influence.
• Mandatory internal elections and income tax returns: The Election Commission required parties to hold organizational elections and file income tax returns. While compliance exists, it's sometimes a formality and hasn't necessarily increased internal democracy.

Suggestions For Reform

Additional suggestions for reforming parties include:

• Legislation regulating internal party affairs, mandating membership registers, internal constitutions, independent judges for disputes, and open elections for top posts.
• Mandatory quotas for women candidates (e.g., one-third) and reservation in party decision-making bodies.
• State funding of elections, providing financial support (in cash or kind) based on electoral performance to reduce reliance on private funds.

These suggestions have not yet been adopted by parties. While potentially beneficial, legal solutions can be counter-productive if they lead to excessive regulation or parties finding ways to evade the law. Parties are also unlikely to pass laws they don't support.

Other Ways To Reform

Political parties can also be reformed through two other means:

1. Public pressure: Citizens, pressure groups, movements, and media can pressure parties through petitions, publicity, and agitations. If parties fear losing public support, they may take reforms more seriously.
2. Citizen participation: Parties can improve if citizens who desire reform actively join and participate in them. The quality of democracy depends on public participation. Criticizing from the outside is less effective than engaging directly. Improving politics requires more and better political participation.