Chapter 3 Equality

This chapter explores the concept of **equality**, a fundamental value deeply embedded in political thought and enshrined in many Constitutions, including our own. Reflecting on equality involves examining several key questions: its definition, its importance as a moral and political ideal, whether it requires treating everyone identically, how to pursue it and minimize inequality in different aspects of life, and how to differentiate between its political, economic, and social dimensions.

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In addressing these questions, we encounter various influential ideologies like socialism, Marxism, liberalism, and feminism. The chapter also presents data and figures illustrating the extent and nature of inequalities, serving to highlight the issue rather than for memorization.

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3.1 Why Does Equality Matter?

**Equality** is a powerful ideal that has served as a source of inspiration and a guiding principle for human societies and movements throughout history. It is a core tenet in many faiths and religions, often asserting the inherent worth and equal creation of all human beings. As a political ideal, equality posits that **all human beings possess equal worth** and deserve equal consideration and respect simply by virtue of their shared humanity, regardless of their differences in color, gender, race, or nationality. This concept of shared humanity underpins ideas like universal human rights and the notion of ‘crimes against humanity’.

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In the modern era, the ideal of the equality of all human beings has been a central rallying cry in struggles against states and social institutions that perpetuate inequalities based on rank, wealth, status, or privilege. The French Revolutionaries of the eighteenth century famously demanded ‘Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’ in their revolt against the aristocracy and monarchy. The demand for equality was also fundamental to anti-colonial movements in Asia and Africa in the twentieth century. Today, the call for equality continues to be voiced by marginalized groups within societies who experience discrimination and exclusion, such as women and Dalits in India.

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Despite its widespread acceptance as an ideal and its inclusion in the constitutions and laws of many countries, **inequality** remains a stark reality, visible both globally and within societies like India. We see stark contrasts such as luxury housing beside slums, well-equipped schools alongside those lacking basic facilities, food wastage coexisting with starvation, and significant disparities in wealth, opportunities, and living conditions.

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This presents a paradox: equality is a universally accepted ideal, yet inequality is widely prevalent. We live in a world characterized by unequal wealth, opportunities, work situations, and power distribution. This raises fundamental questions: Are these inequalities a natural consequence of inherent differences in talent and ability, or are they the result of social structures, rules, and circumstances? Are they inevitable, or are they unjust outcomes of our social organization?

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These questions make equality a central theme in social and political theory. Studying political theory involves grappling with complex questions about what equality truly means, given human differences. It asks what we aim to achieve through the ideal of equality, whether it necessitates identical treatment for everyone under all conditions, what kinds of equality we should pursue, and for whom. It also examines how societies should decide which differences in treatment or reward are acceptable and which are not, and what policies can promote a more egalitarian society.

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Fact Sheet on Global Inequalities: (Data cited from Human Development Report, 2005, UNDP).

• The combined income of the richest 50 individuals globally exceeds that of the poorest 40 crore people (400 million).
• The poorest 40% of the world's population receives only 5% of global income, while the richest 10% controls 54% of global income.
• Developed industrial countries (mainly North America and Western Europe), with 25% of the world's population, own 86% of global industry and consume 80% of global energy.
• Residents of developed countries consume significantly more resources (water, energy, iron, steel, paper) per capita than those in developing countries.
• There are vast disparities in health risks; e.g., the risk of dying from pregnancy-related causes is much higher in Nigeria (1 in 18) than in Canada (1 in 8700).
• Developed countries account for a disproportionate share of global environmental pollution (e.g., fossil fuel emissions, acid rain), and polluting industries are often shifted to less developed countries.

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Economic Inequalities in India: (Findings from Census of India, 2011, regarding urban-rural disparities in household amenities and assets).

Amenity/Asset	Rural Families	Urban Families	Put $\checkmark$ or $\times$ for your family
Electricity connection	55%	93%
Tap water in the house	35%	71%
Bathroom in the house	45%	87%
Television	33%	77%
Scooter/Moped/Motorcycle	14%	35%
Car/Jeep/Van	2%	10%

This data highlights significant disparities in access to basic amenities and assets between rural and urban households in India, reflecting broad economic inequalities.

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3.2 What Is Equality?

At a fundamental level, **equality** means that all human beings are entitled to the same respect and consideration simply because they are human. Our intuitive understanding of equality leads us to find distinctions based on race, color, religion, gender, or caste unacceptable.

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However, treating people with equal respect does not necessarily mean treating everyone identically in every situation. Society requires roles and functions to be divided, and people often have different status or rewards based on their contributions or roles. Some distinctions in treatment or status may appear acceptable, such as the special rank given to a Prime Minister or army general, provided their privileges are not misused.

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The question then is identifying which distinctions and differences are acceptable and which are unjust. Distinctions based purely on arbitrary criteria like birth into a particular religion, race, caste, or gender are widely regarded as unacceptable forms of inequality. However, differences in success or achievement that result from individuals pursuing different goals or exercising different talents are generally not seen as violating equality, provided they had a fair opportunity to develop themselves.

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The commitment to the ideal of equality does not mean eliminating all differences between people. It means that the treatment received and the opportunities available to individuals should not be determined or limited by factors beyond their control, such as their birth or social circumstances. Everyone should have access to opportunities to develop their skills and pursue their ambitions.

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Equality Of Opportunities

The concept of **equality of opportunities** implies that all individuals, by virtue of being human beings, should have the same basic rights and access to opportunities to develop their skills and talents and pursue their life goals. This acknowledges that people are different in their choices, preferences, talents, and skills, which may lead to varying levels of success. However, a society is considered unequal and unjust if there are significant inequalities in people's access to fundamental resources and opportunities essential for self-development, such as good education, quality health care, and safe housing.

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Ensuring equal opportunities means removing arbitrary barriers to access so that individuals can compete and strive based on their abilities and efforts, rather than their social background.

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Natural And Social Inequalities

Political theory has sometimes distinguished between **natural inequalities** and **socially-produced inequalities**. Natural inequalities are seen as differences arising from inherent variations in individual capabilities, talents, or physical characteristics that people are born with (e.g., differences in height, athletic ability, or musical talent). These are often assumed to be largely unalterable.

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Socially-produced inequalities, in contrast, are those created by society's rules, practices, and structures. These emerge from unequal opportunities, discrimination, or exploitation of certain groups by others. Examples include differential treatment based on race, caste, gender, or social class, or valuing certain types of work differently. These inequalities reflect societal values and can be seen as unjust.

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While this distinction can help differentiate between possibly acceptable differences (due to diverse natural talents) and unfair ones (due to social bias), it is not always straightforward. Some inequalities, justified historically as 'natural' (e.g., arguing women are the 'weaker sex' or people of certain races have 'lesser intelligence'), are now recognized as socially constructed distinctions based on power imbalances and prejudice rather than unchangeable inborn traits. Furthermore, advances in technology and medicine challenge the idea that some natural differences are unalterable; disabled people can be helped to function effectively, and denying them opportunities based on perceived natural limitations is now widely seen as unjust.

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Given these complexities, many contemporary theorists find it more useful to distinguish between inequalities that arise from individuals' choices and efforts, and inequalities that stem from the circumstances (family, social background) into which a person is born. It is the latter type of inequality, determined by factors outside an individual's control, that advocates of equality are primarily concerned with minimizing and eliminating.

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3.3 Three Dimensions Of Equality

To address the various forms of inequality in society, different thinkers and ideologies have highlighted three main dimensions of equality that need to be pursued simultaneously: **political, social, and economic equality**. Achieving a truly just and equal society requires progress in all three areas.

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Political Equality

**Political equality** in democratic societies typically involves granting **equal citizenship** to all members. Equal citizenship bestows basic rights necessary for individuals to develop and participate in the state's affairs. These include rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression, movement, and association, and freedom of belief. These are primarily legal rights, often guaranteed by the constitution and laws. However, political equality alone is often insufficient, as significant inequalities can persist even in countries where all citizens have equal political rights. These inequalities are often rooted in disparities of resources and opportunities in the social and economic spheres.

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Social Equality

While political and legal equality are crucial for removing formal barriers to participation, achieving true equality often requires supplementing them with **equality of opportunities**. This means ensuring that individuals from different social backgrounds, communities, and groups have a **fair and equal chance to compete** for social goods and opportunities. To enable this, it is necessary to minimize the disadvantages caused by social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain minimum conditions of life for all members of society.

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These minimum conditions include adequate access to healthcare, quality education, sufficient nutrition, and a minimum wage. Without these basic provisions, it is challenging for disadvantaged individuals to compete on equal terms with those from more privileged backgrounds. Lack of equality of opportunity can lead to a waste of potential talent in society.

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In India, challenges to equal opportunities stem not only from limited facilities but also from prevailing social customs and discriminatory practices (e.g., caste-based discrimination, restrictions on women's inheritance rights or participation in certain activities, discouragement of higher education for girls). The state has a role in enacting policies to prevent discrimination and provide incentives (e.g., for women's education or employment). Social groups and individuals also play a part in raising awareness and supporting those seeking to exercise their rights.

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The data presented (on higher education attainment by caste-community in urban India, 1999-2000) indicates significant disparities, with Scheduled Castes and Muslims having considerably lower graduation rates compared to Hindu-Upper Castes, Christians, and Sikhs. This data suggests that factors beyond individual effort influence educational attainment, pointing to ongoing social inequalities potentially linked to the caste system and other socio-economic factors, rather than mere chance.

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Economic Equality

**Economic equality** refers to the level of disparity in wealth, property, or income among individuals or classes in society. Significant differences in these economic indicators point to economic inequality. While absolute equality of wealth or income is likely unattainable or undesirable, the degree of inequality can be measured by comparing the wealth/income of the richest and poorest groups or by estimating the number of people living below the poverty line.

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Most democracies aim to provide equal opportunities, hoping that talent and determination can lead to improved economic conditions. While inequalities may persist, proponents of this view believe that sufficient effort allows individuals to improve their economic standing. However, **entrenched inequalities**, those that persist across generations (e.g., certain classes remaining wealthy and others poor), pose a greater threat to social stability and can lead to resentment and conflict. The power of wealthy classes can make it challenging to reform such societies to be more egalitarian.

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Feminism

**Feminism** is a political doctrine advocating for the **equal rights and opportunities for women and men**. Feminists argue that many inequalities between men and women are socially constructed (a result of patriarchy) rather than being natural or necessary, and can therefore be changed to allow both genders to live free and equal lives. They identify **patriarchy** as a system that values men more than women and gives men power over women, often based on the assumption that inherent natural differences justify unequal social positions. Feminists distinguish between **‘sex’** (biological differences) and **‘gender’** (socially determined roles), arguing that most inequalities stem from gender roles created by society, not immutable biological differences. They challenge the traditional division of labor where women are primarily responsible for domestic matters while men are seen as responsible for the public domain, pointing out that women often perform a "double burden" of both paid work and unpaid housework, yet have limited influence in the public sphere. Feminists advocate for eliminating the public/private distinction and all forms of gender inequality.

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Marxism And Liberalism

Different ideologies offer contrasting perspectives on the causes of inequality and how to address it.

• **Marxism and Socialism:** Argue that the root cause of entrenched inequality is the **private ownership of key economic resources** (land, factories, etc.) and other forms of property. Private ownership concentrates wealth and grants political power to the owning class, enabling them to influence state policies and maintain inequality. Marxists and socialists believe that economic inequality underpins other forms of social inequality. Therefore, they advocate for going beyond equal opportunities to ensure **public control** over essential resources and property to fundamentally address inequality.
• **Liberalism:** Upholds the principle of **competition** as an efficient and fair way to distribute resources and rewards. Liberals believe the state may need to intervene to ensure a minimum standard of living and equal opportunities, but they are often cautious about extensive state control over the economy. For liberals, as long as competition is open and fair, individuals will be rewarded for their talents and efforts, and inequalities are less likely to become unjustly entrenched. They tend to view inequalities in political, economic, and social spheres as potentially separate issues that require different strategies to address, rather than necessarily being linked as Marxists argue. The liberal concern is with unjust and entrenched inequalities that prevent individuals from developing their capabilities.

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Socialism

**Socialism** emerged as a response to the inequalities generated by industrial capitalism, focusing on minimizing inequality and justly distributing resources. Socialists generally favor some degree of government regulation, planning, and control over key sectors like education and healthcare. Indian socialist thinker **Rammanohar Lohia** identified five types of inequalities that must be fought simultaneously: gender, color, caste, colonial rule, and economic inequality. He argued against the view that economic inequality was the sole important form, stressing that each inequality had independent roots and required separate, simultaneous struggles. He viewed the struggle against these inequalities as multiple 'revolutions', adding revolutions for civil liberties and non-violence to his concept of 'Sapta Kranti' (Seven Revolutions), which for him embodied the ideal of socialism.

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3.4 How Can We Promote Equality?

Promoting equality involves adopting specific principles and policies aimed at reducing existing inequalities and creating a more just society. While different ideologies propose varying approaches, some core strategies are widely debated and implemented.

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Establishing Formal Equality

The first step towards equality is the formal legal recognition of equality. This involves **ending formal systems of inequality and privilege** that have been protected by customs and laws throughout history. Historically, many societies had legal or customary restrictions preventing certain groups (e.g., poor people, women, lower castes) from accessing opportunities or holding positions. Achieving formal equality requires governments and legal systems to abolish these restrictions and formally accept the principle of treating all citizens identically before the law, regardless of their background.

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India's Constitution exemplifies this by prohibiting discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth and abolishing the practice of untouchability. Most modern constitutions guarantee formal equality as identical treatment by law.

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Equality Through Differential Treatment

However, formal equality alone is often insufficient to address deep-seated inequalities. Sometimes, it is necessary to treat people **differently** in certain ways to ensure they can genuinely exercise equal rights and opportunities. This is known as **differential treatment** or special provisions. Such measures are not seen as violating equality but as necessary steps to enhance it by overcoming existing disadvantages.

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Examples include:

• Providing special ramps in public buildings for disabled people to ensure equal access.
• Offering special protection to women working late shifts to safeguard their equal right to work safely.
• Implementing policies to address historical disadvantages faced by certain groups.

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Debates arise regarding what kinds of differences justify differential treatment and what policies are appropriate. The goal is to identify and minimize the effects of differences (social, economic, etc.) that hinder access to equal opportunities. One widely debated approach is **affirmative action**.

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Affirmative Action

**Affirmative action** policies are based on the idea that formal legal equality is insufficient to overcome deeply entrenched inequalities resulting from historical discrimination and prejudice. These policies are designed as positive measures to correct the cumulative effects of past disadvantages and promote equal opportunity. Affirmative action can take various forms, including preferential spending on facilities for disadvantaged communities (e.g., scholarships, hostels) or providing special consideration in admissions to educational institutions and jobs.

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In India, the policy of **reservations** (quotas or reserved seats) in education and jobs for deprived groups is a form of affirmative action. This policy is defended on the grounds that certain communities have suffered centuries of social prejudice, exclusion, and segregation, denying them equal opportunities. Since these historically disadvantaged groups cannot compete on truly equal terms with others immediately, special protection and help are considered necessary to create a more egalitarian and just society. The assumption is that affirmative action is a temporary measure to help these communities overcome existing disadvantages and eventually compete equally.

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However, affirmative action policies, particularly reservations, are controversial. Critics argue that treating people differently based on caste or background violates the principle of equality, which requires all persons to be treated alike. They view reservations as a form of reverse discrimination that reinforces the very social distinctions that equality aims to eliminate. Critics maintain that equal consideration and fair competition should be the norm, and that policies should focus on providing general facilities rather than quotas.

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In this debate, it's important to distinguish between the principle of equal rights for individuals (right to equal consideration) and policies aimed at achieving broader equality. Competition should be fair, but people from historically deprived backgrounds (e.g., first-generation learners lacking resources for coaching) may face significant disadvantages. Advocates of affirmative action argue that such individuals, regardless of their specific identity group (dalits, women, etc.), need special help to have a genuinely fair chance. The state may need to devise social policies to provide such help.

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There is broad recognition that social and economic inequalities hinder equal opportunities. The debate is often not about the goal of equal opportunity but about the specific policies (like reservations vs. providing general facilities) the state should use to achieve it. Questions arise regarding how to define who is deprived (e.g., based on economic criteria or social inequalities like caste) and whether such policies are successful in making society more egalitarian.

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Ultimately, policies promoting equality must be justified by their effectiveness in creating a fairer society for all. While equality may sometimes necessitate differential treatment, this must be carefully justified as a means to promote equality, not to establish new forms of dominance. Liberals, cautious of deviations from identical treatment (due to historical experiences with caste or apartheid), emphasize that differential treatment requires strong justification and should not become a means for dominant groups to regain privileges. The women's movement's struggle for equal rights (like voting, education, work) and the need for special facilities (maternity leave, childcare) to truly enable women to compete equally highlight that different treatment can sometimes be essential for achieving substantive equality. The test is whether differential treatment is necessary for a group to enjoy the same rights as others, ensuring it does not create new forms of oppression but contributes to a just and egalitarian society.

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Answer:

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Exercises

(Exercise questions are not included as per instructions.)