Chapter 1 The End Of Bipolarity

What Was The Soviet System?

The **Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)** emerged from the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917. This revolution was driven by socialist ideals, aiming to create an **egalitarian society** in opposition to capitalism. It represented a monumental effort to abolish private property and consciously build a society based on principles of equality.

In establishing this system, the state and the **Communist Party** were given paramount importance. The Soviet political system was centred around the Communist Party, which held exclusive power, and no other political parties or opposition were permitted. The economy was **centrally planned and controlled by the state**.

Following the Second World War, countries in Eastern Europe liberated by the Soviet army came under Soviet influence. Their political and economic systems were modelled after the USSR, forming the **'Second World'** or the **'socialist bloc'**. This bloc was bound together by the **Warsaw Pact**, a military alliance led by the USSR.

After WWII, the Soviet Union became a major world power. Its economy was advanced compared to most countries, second only to the US. It boasted a sophisticated communications network, extensive energy resources (oil, iron, steel), robust machinery production, and an efficient transport system covering vast areas. It also had a domestic consumer industry, although the quality of goods often lagged behind Western products.

The Soviet state guaranteed a **minimum standard of living** for its citizens, providing subsidies for essential needs like health, education, childcare, and other welfare schemes. **State ownership** was the dominant form of property; land and productive assets were owned and managed by the state.

Despite its strengths, the Soviet system became overly **bureaucratic and authoritarian**, creating difficulties for citizens. The lack of democracy and freedom of speech stifled dissent, often expressed through subtle means like jokes and cartoons. Many state institutions required reform. The ruling Communist Party of the Soviet Union maintained tight control over all aspects of life and was largely **unaccountable to the people**.

The party also failed to acknowledge the distinct aspirations of the fifteen republics that constituted the USSR to manage their own affairs, including cultural matters. Although Russia was constitutionally just one republic among fifteen, in practice it **dominated** the Union, leading to feelings of neglect and suppression among people from other regions.

Leaders of the Soviet Union (Vertical Table Format):

Gorbachev And The Disintegration

By the late 1970s, the Soviet economy was faltering and had become stagnant, lagging significantly behind the West in technology and infrastructure. This led to chronic shortages of consumer goods and increasing food imports. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 further strained the system.

Recognising the need for change, **Mikhail Gorbachev** became General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985 and initiated policies of **economic and political reform (perestroika and glasnost)** and democratisation. His goal was to revitalise the USSR and enable it to keep pace with technological advancements in the West.

However, Gorbachev's reforms had unintended consequences. His decision to normalise relations with the West and introduce openness encouraged people in the Eastern European satellite states to protest against their communist governments and Soviet control. Crucially, unlike previous Soviet leaders, Gorbachev chose **not to intervene militarily** to suppress these uprisings, leading to the collapse of communist regimes across Eastern Europe in 1989.

These events coincided with a rapidly worsening crisis within the USSR itself, which accelerated its disintegration. While Gorbachev's reforms aimed to address systemic problems, they faced opposition from hardliners within the Communist Party. This tension culminated in an **abortive coup attempt in 1991** by those who wanted to restore the old system.

By then, the Soviet people had experienced a taste of freedom and rejected the return to strict Communist Party rule. **Boris Yeltsin** emerged as a national hero for his opposition to the coup. Power began shifting from the central Soviet government to the republics, particularly those in the European part of the Union, which increasingly asserted their sovereignty.

The Central Asian republics initially did not seek full independence but wished to remain in a federation. However, in **December 1991**, led by Yeltsin, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the **disbandment of the Soviet Union**. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned. Capitalism and democracy were proclaimed as the new foundations for the post-Soviet republics.

The declaration of dissolution and the formation of the **Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)** initially surprised other republics, including those in Central Asia. This issue was resolved by including them as founding members of the CIS. Russia was recognised as the **successor state** to the USSR, inheriting its seat in the UN Security Council, accepting its international commitments, and taking over as the sole nuclear power from the former Soviet Union, undertaking some disarmament measures with the US. The Soviet Union effectively ceased to exist.

Why Did The Soviet Union Disintegrate?

The sudden disintegration of the Soviet Union, the world's second most powerful country, is a subject of ongoing historical analysis, offering potential lessons for understanding the collapse of political systems.

The primary reason for the collapse lies in the **internal weaknesses of Soviet political and economic institutions**. These failed to meet the basic aspirations of the people. Prolonged **economic stagnation** led to severe shortages of consumer goods, causing large segments of society to openly question and doubt the system's effectiveness.

The economic stagnation was largely due to the massive financial burden of maintaining a vast **nuclear and military arsenal** and providing assistance to its satellite states in Eastern Europe and republics within the USSR (especially Central Asia). This proved unsustainable.

Concurrently, ordinary citizens gained increasing awareness of the **economic advancements in the West**. Seeing the growing disparities between their system and Western capitalism, the official narrative that the Soviet system was superior lost credibility, leading to political and psychological disillusionment.

Beyond economics, the system suffered from **administrative and political stagnation**. The Communist Party, after over 70 years of rule, lacked accountability to the people. Citizens felt alienated by the slow, stifling administration, widespread **corruption**, the system's inability to correct its own failures, resistance to greater openness (glasnost), and the excessive **centralisation of authority**.

Adding to the discontent, party bureaucrats enjoyed **more privileges** than ordinary citizens, further eroding popular support and identification with the government and rulers.

Gorbachev's reforms, while accurately diagnosing these problems, are seen by many as setting in motion forces that became uncontrollable. There are differing perspectives on the impact of his reforms:

• Some felt the reforms were **too slow** and were impatient with the pace of change, leading to disappointment.
• Others, particularly party members benefiting from the old system, felt Gorbachev was moving **too quickly**, fearing the erosion of their power and privileges.

This created a 'tug-of-war' situation where Gorbachev lost support from different factions, dividing public opinion. Even his supporters became disillusioned, feeling he didn't adequately defend his own policies.

Crucially, the rise of **nationalism** and the desire for sovereignty within the various republics proved to be the most immediate cause of disintegration. This surge of nationalist sentiment in republics like Russia, the Baltics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, and Georgia surprised many observers.

Views differ on the role of nationalism: some argue that nationalist sentiments were always present beneath the surface and would have eventually led to internal struggle regardless of reforms, while others believe Gorbachev's reforms inadvertently accelerated nationalist dissatisfaction to a point where it could no longer be controlled. Interestingly, nationalist unrest was strongest in the more 'European' and relatively prosperous republics, where people felt alienated from Central Asian populations and felt burdened by supporting the more economically backward areas.

Consequences Of Disintegration

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the socialist bloc profoundly reshaped global politics, resulting in three broad categories of lasting change:

Firstly, it marked the **end of Cold War confrontations**. The fundamental ideological rivalry between socialism and capitalism effectively ended. Since this rivalry had driven a massive arms race, nuclear accumulation, and the existence of opposing military blocs (Warsaw Pact vs. NATO), its conclusion opened possibilities for disarmament and a new era of peace, no longer defined by the rigid US-Soviet standoff.

Secondly, **global power relations shifted dramatically**. The end of bipolarity left the United States as the sole superpower, leading to a **unipolar international system**. The capitalist economy, backed by the US's power and prestige, became the dominant global economic system. Institutions like the **World Bank** and the **International Monetary Fund (IMF)** gained significant influence as advisors to post-communist countries transitioning to capitalism, often providing loans tied to specific reform policies. Politically, **liberal democracy** emerged as the widely promoted model for organising political life.

Thirdly, the disintegration led to the **emergence of numerous new independent countries**. These former Soviet republics and Eastern European states pursued their own aspirations and made independent choices. Some, like the Baltic and East European states, sought integration with the West, aiming to join the **European Union (EU)** and the **North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)**. Others, particularly the Central Asian countries, leveraged their geographical location to maintain ties with Russia while also establishing relations with Western powers, China, and others. This diversification of actors brought many new players into the international system, each with its own identity, interests, and unique economic and political challenges.

Shock Therapy In Post-Communist Regimes

Following the collapse of communism, most former Soviet bloc countries underwent a difficult transition to democratic capitalism. This process, heavily influenced by the World Bank and the IMF, became known as **‘shock therapy’**. While the speed and intensity varied, the core features of shock therapy were similar across these countries.

Shock therapy demanded a **complete shift to a capitalist economy**, necessitating the dismantling of structures inherited from the Soviet era. **Private ownership** became the dominant form of property holding. State assets were privatised, and corporate ownership models were rapidly introduced. Collective farms were replaced by private farming and the introduction of capitalism in agriculture.

This transition model explicitly **ruled out any alternative or ‘third way’** between state-controlled socialism and capitalism, enforcing a specific path towards market economies.

Furthermore, shock therapy involved a radical change in the **external orientation** of these economies. Development was now tied to increased global trade, requiring a rapid and full integration into the system of **free trade**. This included opening economies to foreign investment (**Foreign Direct Investment - FDI**), **financial liberalisation** (deregulation), and making currencies convertible.

Finally, the transition broke down the existing trade alliances among the Soviet bloc countries, such as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA/Comecon). Each former member state was now encouraged to link directly with Western economies rather than with each other in the region. This process aimed to absorb these states into the Western economic system, with Western capitalist countries guiding their development through various international agencies.

Consequences Of Shock Therapy

Contrary to the promises of prosperity, shock therapy in the 1990s generally led to **economic ruin and hardship** across the region. In Russia, the industrial sector suffered a near-total collapse, with about 90% of state-owned industries sold off to private entities.

This rapid privatisation, driven by market forces rather than planned industrial policy, led to the disappearance of entire industries. This process was infamously termed **‘the largest garage sale in history’** because valuable state industries were significantly undervalued and sold at extremely low prices. Although citizens were given vouchers to participate, most sold them in the black market out of immediate financial need.

The Russian currency, the ruble, depreciated sharply, and **high inflation** wiped out people's savings. The disintegration of the collective farm system resulted in **food insecurity**, forcing Russia to import food. By 1999, Russia's real GDP was significantly lower than it had been in 1989. The old internal trading structure broke down, with no effective alternative immediately in place.

The comprehensive state social welfare system was dismantled. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed **large segments of the population into poverty**. The middle classes were severely affected, and many skilled academic and intellectual workers emigrated. **Mafia groups** emerged, controlling economic activities.

**New economic disparities** arose, creating significant inequality between rich and poor individuals and between different regions within post-Soviet states, especially Russia.

The emphasis on economic transformation often overshadowed the **construction of democratic institutions**. Constitutions were drafted hastily, many (including Russia's) concentrating extensive power in a strong executive presidency, leaving elected parliaments relatively weak. Several presidents in Central Asia became authoritarian, suppressing dissent and consolidating power for extended periods, leading to a lack of judicial culture and independent judiciaries in many of these countries.

While many economies, including Russia's, began to revive around 2000, a decade after independence, this recovery was largely driven by the export of **natural resources** like oil, natural gas, and minerals (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan are major producers). Other countries benefited from transit fees for oil pipelines. Some manufacturing also gradually resumed.

Tensions And Conflicts

Many former Soviet Republics have faced **tensions, civil wars, and insurgencies** since disintegration, often complicated by external involvement.

Within Russia, republics like **Chechnya and Dagestan** experienced violent secessionist movements, met with controversial military actions by Moscow that raised human rights concerns but did not fully resolve independence aspirations.

In **Central Asia**, Tajikistan endured a decade-long civil war until 2001. The region has also seen various sectarian conflicts. In Azerbaijan, the province of Nagorno-Karabakh has faced conflict over ethnic Armenians seeking to join Armenia. Georgia has dealt with secessionist demands from two provinces and civil war. Movements challenging existing regimes have occurred in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia. Disputes over shared river waters have also led to instability, affecting the lives of ordinary citizens.

Central Asia's rich **hydrocarbon resources** have made it a zone of intense competition among external powers and oil companies. Its strategic location bordering Russia, China, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and proximity to West Asia, increases its geopolitical importance. Post-9/11, the US sought military bases and overflight rights in Central Asian states for operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, often paying governments for access.

Russia views these former Soviet states as its **‘Near Abroad’**, asserting a claim to influence. China has growing interests due to oil resources and increasing cross-border settlement and trade. These dynamics contribute to regional tensions.

In Eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. However, the most severe conflict occurred in the Balkan republics of **Yugoslavia**, which fragmented after 1991. Provinces like Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence, sparking ethnic conflict. Serbian opposition led to massacres of non-Serb Bosnians, followed by **NATO intervention** and bombing.

India And Post-Communist Countries

India has maintained cordial relationships with all post-communist countries. However, its strongest ties remain with **Russia**, forming a significant aspect of India's foreign policy rooted in historical trust, common interests, and mutual popular regard. Indian cultural figures like Raj Kapoor and Amitabh Bachchan are widely known in Russia and across post-Soviet countries, with Indian cinema and music part of popular memory.

India and Russia share a vision of a **multipolar world order**, characterised by the coexistence of multiple international powers, collective security arrangements, increased regionalism, negotiated resolution of conflicts, independent foreign policies for all states, and a strengthened, democratised United Nations. The **Indo-Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001** has led to over 80 bilateral agreements, reinforcing their relationship.

India benefits from this relationship through Russian support on issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, intelligence sharing on international terrorism, access to Central Asia, and maintaining a balance in its relationship with China. Russia benefits from India being its second-largest arms market. Russia is crucial for India's energy needs, providing assistance during oil crises and supporting nuclear energy and space programs. Cooperation extends to investment in oilfields and scientific projects with Central Asian republics.

Flashback: India And The Ussr

During the Cold War, India and the USSR had a **special relationship**, leading critics to suggest India was aligned with the Soviet bloc. This relationship was multi-dimensional:

• Economic: The Soviet Union provided crucial assistance to India's public sector industries (steel plants, machinery plants) when Western aid was difficult to obtain. It also accepted Indian currency for trade, important when India faced foreign exchange shortages.
• Political: The USSR supported India's stance on the Kashmir issue in the UN and backed India during conflicts, notably the 1971 war with Pakistan. India also indirectly supported Soviet foreign policy on certain matters.
• Military: India received most of its military equipment from the Soviet Union, including access to military technologies and joint production agreements, at a time when many other countries were unwilling to provide such support.
• Culture: Indian films and culture were popular in the Soviet Union, with many Indian artists and writers visiting the USSR, fostering mutual appreciation.

Timeline Of Disintegration Of The Soviet Union

• 1985 March: Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; initiates reforms. Boris Yeltsin heads Moscow Communist Party.
• 1988 June: Independence movement begins in Lithuania, spreading later to Estonia and Latvia.
• 1989 October: Soviet Union declares Warsaw Pact members can decide their futures.
• 1989 November: Berlin Wall falls.
• 1990 February: Gorbachev ends Communist Party's monopoly on power, allowing multi-party politics.
• 1990 March: Lithuania declares independence (first Soviet republic to do so).
• 1990 June: Russian parliament declares independence from Soviet Union.
• 1991 June: Boris Yeltsin (no longer in Communist Party) becomes President of Russia.
• 1991 August: Communist Party hardliners stage abortive coup against Gorbachev.
• 1991 September: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania become UN members.
• 1991 December: Russia, Belarus, Ukraine dissolve the 1922 USSR Treaty and form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Other republics join CIS later. Russia takes over USSR's UN seat.
• 1991 December 25: Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union; marks the end of the Soviet Union.