Chapter 4 India’s External Relations

International Context

India gained independence in a challenging international environment. The world was recovering from a devastating war and attempting to establish a new international body (the UN). Decolonisation was accelerating, and many newly independent nations faced the twin challenges of welfare and democracy. Free India's foreign policy reflected these global concerns.

Beyond global factors, India had specific domestic issues shaping its foreign policy: inherited international disputes from the British, pressures from Partition, and the urgent task of poverty alleviation. This was the backdrop against which India began participating in world affairs as an independent nation-state.

Born after a world war, India aimed to conduct its foreign relations with respect for other nations' sovereignty and achieve security through peace (echoed in Directive Principles of State Policy, Source on Constitutional principles). Both domestic and international factors influence a nation's foreign policy.

Developing countries often lack resources to assert their concerns effectively internationally, pursuing modest goals focused on peace and development in their neighbourhood. Their dependence on powerful states (economic, security) can influence their foreign policy choices. Post-WWII, many developing nations aligned with powerful countries for aid. This divided the world into two camps: US-led and Soviet-led. India, however, played a role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The end of the Cold War changed this context, but when India became independent, the Cold War was just beginning, raising the question of whether India belonged to either camp and whether its foreign policy successfully avoided conflict while maintaining peace.

Supermans Role in Foreign Policy

While Jawaharlal Nehru played a dominant role in formulating and implementing India's foreign policy from 1946 to 1964 (serving as both Prime Minister and Foreign Minister), referring to him as a "superman" might exaggerate his role. Foreign policy is shaped by multiple factors, including domestic concerns, external pressures, and the collective efforts of advisors and institutions, not solely the vision of one leader. However, his personal conviction and influence were undoubtedly profound in setting the initial direction.

The Policy Of Non-Alignment

The Indian national movement was part of a broader global struggle against colonialism, influencing liberation movements in Asia and Africa. India's leaders had contacts with leaders of other colonies, united against colonialism. The Indian National Army (INA) during WWII showed connections between India and overseas Indians in the freedom struggle. India's foreign policy after independence reflected the ideals of its freedom struggle and was shaped by domestic and external factors.

India's independence coincided with the start of the Cold War, marked by global confrontation between the US and USSR blocs (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact). Decolonisation and the rise of new nations also occurred. India's leadership had to pursue national interests within this context.

Nehru’s Role

Jawaharlal Nehru was instrumental in setting India's foreign policy agenda (1946-1964). Serving as both Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, he significantly influenced its formulation and implementation. His three main objectives were to preserve India's sovereignty, protect its territorial integrity, and promote rapid economic development. Nehru aimed to achieve these through the strategy of **non-alignment**.

Some in India favoured aligning with the US bloc (seen as pro-democracy), including leaders like Dr. Ambedkar and parties like the Bharatiya Jan Sangh and Swatantra Party. However, Nehru's vision of non-alignment largely prevailed.

Distance From Two Camps

Independent India's foreign policy actively pursued a peaceful world through non-alignment, reducing Cold War tensions, and contributing to UN peacekeeping. India chose to stay away from the military alliances of the US and USSR (NATO, Warsaw Pact). Non-alignment was a complex balancing act. Sometimes, India's actions seemed inconsistent (protesting British invasion of Egypt but not condemning Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956). Despite this, India generally maintained an independent stance on international issues and received aid from both blocs. (Source on general policy quotes Nehru's views on non-alignment).

While India promoted non-alignment to developing countries, Pakistan joined US-led military alliances. The US resented India's independent foreign policy and growing ties with the Soviet Union, leading to unease in Indo-US relations in the 1950s.

India's planned economic development strategy (import-substitution, resource base development) limited initial economic interaction with the outside world.

Afro-Asian Unity

Nehru envisioned a major role for India in world affairs, especially in Asia, due to its size, location, and potential power. His era saw India establish contacts with other newly independent states in Asia and Africa. Nehru was a strong advocate for Asian unity, convening the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947 before India's independence. India actively supported Indonesia's freedom struggle and the broader decolonisation process, firmly opposing racism like apartheid in South Africa.

The **Afro-Asian Conference** in Bandung, Indonesia (1955), marked a high point of India's engagement with newly independent nations and led to the establishment of the **Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)**. The First NAM Summit was held in Belgrade in 1961, with Nehru as a co-founder.

Peace And Conflict With China

Unlike its often strained relations with Pakistan, India began its relationship with China on a friendly note. Following the Chinese revolution in 1949, India was among the first to recognise the communist government. Nehru supported China internationally, although some colleagues worried about future Chinese aggression. For a long time, the border was guarded by paramilitary forces, not the army.

The joint declaration of **Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence)** by Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in April 1954 aimed to strengthen ties. Leaders exchanged visits and were warmly received.

Two developments strained the relationship: China's annexation of **Tibet** in 1950 removed a historical buffer. India initially did not oppose but became uneasy about the suppression of Tibetan culture. The Dalai Lama's political asylum in India in 1959 triggered strong Chinese protest. (Source on Tibet details these events). A **boundary dispute** also emerged. India claimed the colonial-era border was settled, but China disagreed. The main dispute was over Aksai-chin (Ladakh) and Arunachal Pradesh. Chinese occupation of Aksai-chin (1957-59) and construction of a road intensified the issue. Despite talks, differences persisted, leading to border skirmishes.

The Chinese Invasion, 1962

In October 1962, while world attention was on the Cuban Missile Crisis, China launched a swift, massive invasion on both disputed border regions. The first attack lasted a week, with China capturing parts of Arunachal Pradesh. A second attack followed. Indian forces blocked advances in Ladakh, but China advanced in the east. China eventually declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew to positions before the invasion.

The China war damaged India's image. India sought military aid from the US and UK; the USSR remained neutral. It caused national humiliation and strengthened nationalism. Army commanders resigned/retired. Defence Minister V. Krishna Menon, a close Nehru associate, resigned. Nehru's stature suffered due to criticism for his assessment of Chinese intentions and lack of preparedness. A no-confidence motion was moved, and Congress lost by-elections, indicating changing political mood. (Source quotes Rajagopalachari's favourable view of Zhou Enlai).

It took over a decade for normal relations to resume (full diplomatic relations restored in 1976). Top leaders visited China (Vajpayee 1979, Rajiv Gandhi 1988). Emphasis shifted to trade relations. (Fast Forward section notes Sino-Indian relations since 1962).

The 1962 conflict affected Indian politics. The growing rift between China and the USSR led to differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI), resulting in a split in 1964, forming CPI (pro-USSR) and CPI(M) (closer to China). CPI(M) leaders were arrested post-war for being pro-China. The war also highlighted the need for reorganisation in the underdeveloped and isolated Northeast region. Statehood was granted (Nagaland), and elected assemblies were given to Union Territories (Manipur, Tripura).

Wars And Peace With Pakistan

Conflict with Pakistan began immediately after Partition over the dispute on **Jammu and Kashmir**. A proxy war started in 1947 but did not escalate into full conflict. The issue was referred to the UN. Pakistan became a key factor in India's relations with the US and later China.

Despite the Kashmir conflict, cooperation occurred: both governments worked to return abducted women to original families. A long-standing river water sharing dispute was resolved through World Bank mediation: the **Indus Waters Treaty** was signed by Nehru and Ayub Khan in 1960 and has largely held despite conflicts.

A more serious armed conflict began in **1965**. Pakistan launched attacks in the Rann of Kutch and then Jammu and Kashmir. India counter-attacked on the Punjab border. The war ended with UN intervention and the **Tashkent Agreement** (Jan 1966) signed by Shastri and Ayub Khan, brokered by the USSR. The war added to India's economic difficulties.

Bangladesh War, 1971

Pakistan faced a major internal crisis after the 1970 elections: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto won in West Pakistan, but Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman's Awami League swept East Pakistan due to resentment against West Pakistani dominance. Pakistani rulers refused to accept the democratic verdict or Awami League's demand for federation. In early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and began suppressing the Bengali population, leading to a liberation struggle for 'Bangladesh'.

India supported the freedom struggle with aid and material support, bearing the burden of millions of refugees. Pakistan accused India of trying to break it up. Support for Pakistan came from the US and China. A secret US-China rapprochement (Kissinger's visit via Pakistan in July 1971) led to a regional realignment.

To counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year **Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union** (August 1971), assuring Soviet support against attack. After diplomatic tension, a full-scale war broke out in **December 1971**. Pakistan attacked India; India retaliated on both fronts. The Indian army advanced rapidly in East Pakistan, supported by the local population. Within ten days, Pakistani forces (approx. 90,000) surrendered in Dhaka, leading to Bangladesh's formation. India declared a unilateral ceasefire. The Shimla Agreement (July 1972) between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto formalised peace.

The decisive victory brought national jubilation and increased Indira Gandhi's popularity. Assembly elections after the war brought large majorities for Congress in many states. Conflicts affected India's development planning, diverting resources to defense after 1962 (military modernization drive). Defence expenditure increased significantly. The Third Plan was affected, leading to a 'plan holiday' and delay in the Fourth Plan. (Fast Forward section notes the Kargil conflict in 1999).

Shifting alliances in world politics post-1977 (non-Congress governments) influenced India's foreign policy. The Janata Party (1977) aimed for 'genuine non-alignment,' correcting the pro-Soviet tilt. Subsequent governments sought better ties with China and closer ties with the US, reflecting the changing global power balance. India's foreign policy became more pro-US as Russia's global preeminence declined. Economic interests also influenced choices. Indo-Pakistan relations saw new developments, with efforts to normalise ties despite ongoing issues like Kashmir (cultural exchanges, travel, economic cooperation, bus/train services). However, incidents like the 1999 Kargil conflict show the peace process faced setbacks.

India’s Nuclear Policy

A crucial development was India's first nuclear explosion in May 1974. Nehru supported nuclear programs for peaceful purposes but opposed nuclear weapons, advocating for comprehensive disarmament. However, as nuclear arsenals grew, particularly after China's tests in 1964, five nuclear powers (UNSC permanent members) pushed for the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, which India refused to sign, deeming it discriminatory.

India termed its 1974 test a peaceful explosion. This occurred during domestic political difficulty, including economic turmoil from the 1973 Oil Shock and national agitations. Despite political differences on external relations, Indian politics broadly agreed on national integration, border protection, and national interest. Foreign policy played a limited role in party politics, even during wartime.

India continued to oppose discriminatory non-proliferation treaties (refused to sign NPT, CTBT). India's tests in May 1998 demonstrated military nuclear capacity, followed by Pakistan, increasing regional vulnerability. The international community criticised tests and imposed sanctions (later waived). India's nuclear doctrine is 'credible minimum nuclear deterrence' with 'no first use,' reiterating commitment to global disarmament. (Fast Forward section details India's nuclear program and doctrine).