Chapter 4 International Organisations

Why International Organisations?

International organisations like the United Nations (UN) are often critiqued for their ineffectiveness, particularly during crises (as illustrated by the cartoons commenting on the UN's role in the 2006 Lebanon crisis, Figs on UN effectiveness). Despite such criticisms, the UN is widely regarded as the most crucial international organisation today, representing a hope for global peace and progress. This apparent contradiction raises the question: why do we need international organisations?

As highlighted by former UN officials Dag Hammarskjold and Shashi Tharoor, international organisations are not perfect, but they are vital. They serve crucial purposes:

• Helping states manage issues of **war and peace**.
• Facilitating **cooperation** among countries to improve living conditions globally.

Countries inevitably have conflicts and differences, but these don't have to lead to war. International organisations provide a platform for states to **discuss contentious issues peacefully** and find solutions. They act as forums where nations can engage in dialogue rather than resorting to military conflict ("jaw-jaw is better than war-war"). These organisations are not supra-states controlling members; they are created by and respond to states, helping them resolve problems peacefully through agreed mechanisms.

International organisations are also essential for addressing **challenges that require collective action**, as no single country can resolve them alone. Examples include: global disease eradication (requiring universal vaccination), or tackling climate change (requiring cooperation from major industrial powers to reduce emissions and mitigate effects like rising sea levels).

However, recognising the need for cooperation is different from achieving it in practice. Nations often struggle to agree on how to cooperate effectively, share costs, distribute benefits fairly, and ensure compliance. International organisations help by:

• Producing information and ideas on **how to cooperate**.
• Providing **mechanisms, rules, and bureaucracy** to foster confidence that costs and benefits will be shared properly, and agreements will be honoured.

The **International Monetary Fund (IMF)** is one such international organisation focusing on overseeing the global financial system and providing loans and advice (Source on IMF details its structure and voting power). The US holds the largest voting share.

With the end of the Cold War and the rise of the US as the dominant power, a new role for the UN emerged. Some hoped it could provide a forum for dialogue with the US and potentially limit its power. This possibility will be explored at the end of the chapter.

Evolution Of The Un

The devastating First World War highlighted the need for an international body to prevent conflicts. This led to the creation of the **League of Nations**. However, it failed to prevent the Second World War (1939-45), which caused unprecedented death and destruction.

The **United Nations (UN)** was founded as a successor to the League of Nations immediately after WWII in **1945**. It was established through the signing of the UN Charter by 51 states, aiming to succeed where the League failed (Timeline of Founding of the UN). The UN's core objectives are to prevent international conflict, limit hostilities if war breaks out, and facilitate **cooperation for social and economic development** globally.

By 2011, the UN had grown to include 193 member states, representing almost all independent countries. The UN structure includes several principal organs and numerous agencies:

• **General Assembly:** All member states have one vote each, debating global issues.
• **Security Council:** Responsible for international peace and security. It has five permanent members (US, Russia, UK, France, China) – the most powerful victorious states from WWII – and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms representing different regions.
• **Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):** Deals with social and economic issues.
• **International Court of Justice (ICJ):** Resolves legal disputes between states.
• **Secretariat:** Administers UN operations, headed by the Secretary-General (the UN's chief administrative officer and public figure, Source on UN Secretaries-General).

Many specialised agencies address specific areas: World Health Organisation (WHO), UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC), UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), UNICEF, UNESCO, among others. (UN System chart shows the structure).

Timeline of Founding of the United Nations:

• 1941 August: Signing of the Atlantic Charter (Roosevelt, Churchill).
• 1942 January: 26 Allied nations sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’.
• 1943 December: Tehran Conference Declaration (US, Britain, Soviet Union).
• 1945 February: Yalta Conference (‘Big Three’) decides on a UN conference.
• 1945 April-May: UN Conference on International Organisation in San Francisco.
• 1945 June 26: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (51 original members after Poland signed).
• 1945 October 24: UN officially founded (UN Day).
• 1945 October 30: India joins the UN.

Reform Of The Un After The Cold War

Organisations require reform to adapt to changing environments, and the UN is no exception. Following the Cold War, demands for reforming the UN emerged, but achieving consensus on the nature and implementation of these reforms has been challenging.

Two main types of reforms are debated:

1. **Reform of structures and processes:** Primarily focusing on the functioning and composition of the Security Council.
2. **Review of issues:** Deciding which new issues (e.g., human rights, environment, terrorism) should be prioritised or fall under the UN's jurisdiction.

While there's general agreement that reforms are necessary, specific details (what, how, when) are contentious. The end of the Cold War fundamentally altered global politics, making the UN structure, designed in 1945, seem outdated to many. Changes include: collapse of the Soviet Union, US emergence as sole superpower, improved US-Russia relations, rapid growth of China and India, unprecedented economic growth in Asia, increased UN membership, and new global challenges (genocide, terrorism, climate change, etc.). Facing these shifts, the question arose in 1989: is the UN still equipped and structured effectively? Debate over necessary reforms has continued for decades.

Reform Of Structures And Processes

Achieving agreement on concrete reform measures is difficult despite widespread support for the idea. The most significant debate centres on the **UN Security Council's** functioning and composition. A 1992 UN General Assembly resolution highlighted three main complaints: the Council doesn't reflect contemporary political realities, its decisions are dominated by a few powers reflecting Western interests, and it lacks equitable representation.

Proposals advocate for increasing both permanent and non-permanent membership, particularly from Asia, Africa, and South America, to better represent the current global landscape. Additionally, the US and other Western countries push for reforms in the UN's budgetary procedures and administration.

Choosing new Security Council members is particularly contentious. Various criteria have been proposed (Source on Major contributors to UN budget shows contribution percentages): major economic power, major military power, substantial contributor to UN budget, large population, respect for democracy/human rights, and representing geographical/economic/cultural diversity. Each criterion has supporters and opponents depending on national interests and aspirations. Debates arise over how these criteria should be weighed and applied.

The **World Bank** (created 1944) is another influential international body focusing on development in developing countries, providing loans and grants. It has been criticised for imposing free market reforms and setting economic agendas (Source on World Bank details its activities).

The issue of **equitable representation** is debated in terms of geography (e.g., one seat per continent) or levels of development (e.g., more seats for developing countries). Cultural representation also poses challenges due to the diverse cultural streams within nations. Another related issue is the **veto power** of the five permanent members, viewed by many as undemocratic and outdated post-Cold War, although permanent members are unlikely to relinquish it and their support is seen as vital for the UN's effectiveness.

The Security Council has 5 permanent members with veto power and 10 non-permanent members elected for two-year terms without veto power. The non-permanent members are chosen to ensure geographical representation.

Veto power: The negative vote of any one permanent member in the Security Council can block a resolution, even if all other members vote in favour.

Jurisdiction Of The Un

Beyond membership reform, substantial issues regarding the UN's jurisdiction are debated. In September 2005, UN member states reviewed the organisation's role. They agreed on steps to make the UN more relevant, including:

• Creating a **Peacebuilding Commission** (to help countries transition from conflict).
• Accepting the international community's responsibility to protect populations from atrocities when national governments fail.
• Establishing a **Human Rights Council**.
• Agreeing to work towards **Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)** (replacing Millennium Development Goals).
• Condemning terrorism.
• Creating a **Democracy Fund**.
• Winding up the **Trusteeship Council** (established to oversee transition of trust territories to self-governance).

These steps address significant global challenges, but each is also contentious. Debates persist on criteria for intervention, defining human rights, determining responsibility for atrocities, the realism of achieving ambitious development goals, defining terrorism, and using funds to promote democracy.

The cartoon on Darfur (Fig. on humanitarian crisis) comments on the international community's failure to act effectively in crisis situations like Darfur, raising questions about the UN's capacity and willingness to intervene in such contexts and whether its jurisdiction needs to change to address such failures effectively.

India And The Un Reforms

India supports restructuring the UN, believing a revitalised organisation is necessary in a changing world. It advocates for an expanded UN role in promoting development and cooperation, considering development vital for international peace and security.

India's major concern is the Security Council's outdated composition, with static permanent membership despite increased UN General Assembly membership. India argues this harms the Council's representative character and that an expanded, more representative Council would have greater global support. The Security Council's non-permanent membership was increased from 11 to 15 in 1965, but permanent membership remained unchanged. Given that most UN members are developing countries, India believes they should have a larger role in Security Council decisions affecting them. India supports increasing both permanent and non-permanent members to make the Council broad-based and reflective of contemporary realities.

India itself aspires to be a permanent member of a restructured UN. It bases its claim on several factors: its large population (most populous country), being the world's largest democracy, participation in almost all UN initiatives (particularly peacekeeping efforts), growing economic power, and consistent financial contributions. Permanent membership holds symbolic importance, signifying a country's increased global standing and influence in foreign policy.

However, India's potential inclusion faces opposition. Pakistan is reluctant, and concerns exist regarding India's nuclear capabilities and difficulties with Pakistan potentially hindering its effectiveness as a permanent member. Other emerging powers (Brazil, Germany, Japan, South Africa) also seek permanent seats, leading to competition. Some argue for representation from continents currently lacking permanent seats (Africa, South America). These complexities make achieving permanent membership, for India or any other country, challenging in the near future.

The **World Trade Organisation (WTO)**, successor to GATT (1945), sets rules for global trade. Established in 1995 with 164 members, it makes decisions by consensus. However, major powers often influence rules to their advantage, leading to complaints from developing countries about lack of transparency and dominance by big powers (Source on WTO details its role).

The Un In A Unipolar World

A hope behind UN reforms is that changes could help the organisation better manage a unipolar world dominated by the US. Can the UN balance US dominance, facilitate dialogue, and prevent arbitrary US actions?

Checking US power is challenging. The US is the sole superpower with unparalleled military and economic might, enabling it to potentially disregard the UN. Within the UN, US influence is considerable due to its status as the largest financial contributor, physical location of UN headquarters in the US, presence of US nationals in the bureaucracy, and the veto power.

The US veto allows it to block any decision against its or its allies' interests. This power also gives the US significant influence in selecting the UN Secretary-General and can be used to divide opposition to US policies. Thus, the UN is not a strong counter-balance to the US.

Nevertheless, the UN serves a purpose even in a unipolar world. It brings together over 190 nations for discussions on conflict, social, and economic development, acknowledged even by US leaders. For the rest of the world, the UN provides a platform to challenge US attitudes/policies, advocate for alternatives, and seek compromises. While global unity against the US is rare and balancing its power is difficult, the UN offers a space for arguments to be heard and concessions to be shaped.

The UN is imperfect, but indispensable. Given increasing global interdependence, particularly amplified by technology, the UN's importance is likely to grow. People and governments must find ways to support and utilise the UN and other international organisations to serve both their national interests and the broader international community.

The **International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)** (est. 1957) promotes peaceful nuclear energy use and prevents military applications, inspecting nuclear facilities (Source on IAEA details its mandate).

Amnesty International and **Human Rights Watch** are influential NGOs campaigning for human rights globally, publishing reports and advocating against abuses, influencing public opinion and policy (Source on Amnesty International and Source on Human Rights Watch detail their activities).