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Chapter 2 Era Of One-Party Dominance
Following the challenges of nation-building discussed in the previous chapter, independent India faced the task of establishing democratic politics. This involved initiating electoral competition among political parties almost immediately after Independence. This chapter examines the first decade of electoral politics to understand three key aspects:
- The establishment of a system for conducting free and fair elections.
- The dominant position of the Congress party in the initial years after Independence.
- The emergence of opposition parties and their policies.
Challenge Of Building Democracy
Independent India, born under difficult circumstances (as discussed in the previous chapter), faced significant challenges, including nation-building. In similar situations globally, many newly free countries opted against democracy, prioritising national unity and fearing that democracy would introduce divisions. These countries often experienced non-democratic rule in various forms: nominal democracy with effective control by one leader/party, or direct military rule. Such regimes often promised a quick return to democracy but proved difficult to dislodge once established.
While India's conditions were comparable, its leaders chose a different, more challenging path: establishing democracy. This choice was deeply rooted in the freedom struggle's commitment to democratic ideals. Leaders viewed politics not as a problem, but as a means to resolve societal issues and pursue public interest through democratic processes. Despite visible aspects of competition and power in politics, its fundamental purpose was seen as serving the public good. This path required establishing the first democratically elected government.
The Constitution, adopted in 1949 and effective in 1950, laid down the rules for governance. The task now was to set up the electoral machinery. The **Election Commission of India** was established in January 1950, with **Sukumar Sen** as the first Chief Election Commissioner. Initial expectations were to hold the first general elections in 1950 itself, but the Commission soon realised the immense challenge.
Holding a free and fair election in a country of India's size and complexity was a colossal undertaking. It required: 1) **Delimitation:** drawing electoral constituency boundaries. 2) **Electoral rolls:** preparing lists of eligible voters. These tasks took significant time. The first draft of the rolls had issues, like listing 40 lakh women simply as "wife of..." or "daughter of..." without their names. The Election Commission insisted on revisions or deletion of such entries. Preparing for the election involved training over 3 lakh officers and polling staff.
The sheer scale (17 crore eligible voters, electing ~3,200 MLAs and 489 Lok Sabha members) made it unprecedented globally. Furthermore, it was a major test for democracy in a poor, largely illiterate country, as democracy had primarily existed in literate, prosperous Western nations, where universal adult franchise was not yet fully established (many women lacked voting rights).
India's adoption of universal adult franchise was seen as incredibly bold and risky. An Indian editor called it "the biggest gamble in history." Critics predicted failure, viewing voting by millions of illiterate people as an "absurd farce." The elections were postponed twice, finally held from October 1951 to February 1952, known as the 1952 election as most voting occurred in January 1952. The process took six months for campaigning, polling, and counting.
Elections were competitive, with over four candidates per seat on average. Voter turnout was encouraging (>50%). Results were accepted as fair, even by losers. India's experiment defied critics, proving democracy could work in conditions of poverty and illiteracy. The 1952 election became a landmark, showing that democratic elections were possible anywhere.
Let's Re-search: Collecting personal experiences of elders regarding elections can provide vivid insights into early voting practices (methods like ballot boxes or stamping), changes over time, and their perceptions of those elections compared to today. Asking about who they voted for and why can shed light on early political preferences and influences.
Changing Methods of Voting: Early elections used separate ballot boxes for each candidate. Later, voters stamped a ballot paper with names and symbols. From the late 1990s, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) were introduced, becoming standard by 2004.
Congress Dominance In The First Three General Elections
The victory of the Indian National Congress in the first general election was widely anticipated due to its legacy from the national movement, nationwide organisation, and charismatic leader Jawaharlal Nehru. Nehru led the extensive campaign across the country.
However, the scale of the Congress victory surprised many. The party won 364 out of 489 seats (74%) in the first Lok Sabha, vastly outperforming any other party. The Communist Party of India (CPI) was the second largest, winning only 16 seats. State elections, held concurrently, also saw overwhelming Congress victories in most states, except Travancore-Cochin, Madras, and Orissa, where they eventually formed governments. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister.
The dominance continued in the second (1957) and third (1962) general elections, with Congress consistently winning three-fourths of Lok Sabha seats. Opposition parties failed to secure even one-tenth of Congress seats. In state assembly elections, Congress faced some exceptions where it didn't win a majority.
The extent of Congress victory was amplified by the electoral system. While winning 74% of seats, Congress received only 45% of the total votes in 1952. The **first-past-the-post system**, where the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins, regardless of whether they have an absolute majority, benefited Congress. Opposition votes were split among multiple parties and candidates, allowing Congress to win a large proportion of seats with a minority of the total vote share.
Communist Victory In Kerala
In 1957, the Congress faced its first state-level defeat in Kerala. The **Communist Party of India (CPI)** won the largest number of seats (60 out of 126) in the assembly elections and formed a coalition government with support from independents. This marked the first time a Communist party government came to power through democratic elections anywhere in the world. (Fig. shows E.M.S. Namboodiripad leading a procession).
However, the CPI government in Kerala (led by E. M. S. Namboodiripad) faced strong opposition. The Congress party launched a ‘liberation struggle’ against the elected government, accusing it of carrying out radical policies. The CPI claimed the agitation was led by vested interests and religious organisations. In 1959, the Congress-led central government dismissed the Communist government in Kerala under Article 356 (President's Rule), a controversial decision widely criticised as a misuse of emergency powers.
Nature Of Congress Dominance
India's experience of one-party dominance by the Congress was unique compared to other countries with single-party rule (China, Cuba, Syria, etc.) or effective one-party dominance (Mexico, Myanmar, etc.). Unlike other cases where single-party rule was maintained by limiting democracy or through legal/military means, Congress dominance in India occurred within a framework of free and fair multi-party elections. This resembled the dominance of the African National Congress in post-apartheid South Africa.
Congress As Social And Ideological Coalition
The extraordinary success of the Congress party stemmed from its origins in the freedom struggle. It inherited the legacy of the national movement and was the only party with a nationwide organisation. Jawaharlal Nehru's popularity also played a key role. Congress had the 'first off the blocks' advantage as many other parties were formed only around or after independence. Crucially, the Congress, having been a national movement, was all-inclusive in nature, acting as a **social coalition**. It brought together diverse groups with often contradictory interests: peasants and industrialists, urban and rural dwellers, workers and owners, different classes and castes, religions, and languages (Fig. shows Rajkumari Amrit Kaur).
The leadership of the Congress also expanded to include leaders from rural and agriculture-based backgrounds. By Independence, Congress represented India's diversity as a rainbow-like social coalition.
The Congress was also an **ideological coalition**. It accommodated a wide spectrum of ideologies – revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical, extremist and moderate, right, left, and centre. It served as a 'platform' for various groups, interests, and even political parties (like the Congress Socialist Party, later separated) to participate in the national movement. Despite internal differences in methods and policies, the party managed to maintain unity and build consensus.
The Communist Party of India (CPI) originated from communist groups inspired by the Russian revolution. After initial resistance to participating in elections and advocating uprisings, the CPI shifted strategy and participated in the first general election, becoming the largest opposition party with support concentrated in certain states. Notable leaders included A.K. Gopalan (Fig. shows A.K. Gopalan), S.A. Dange, and E.M.S. Namboodiripad. The party split in 1964 into CPI and CPI(M) due to ideological differences mirroring the Soviet-China rift.
The Socialist Party formed within the Congress in 1934 by young radicals seeking a more egalitarian approach. They formed a separate party in 1948 after Congress amended its constitution. Their ideology was democratic socialism. They criticised Congress but faced challenges presenting themselves as a distinct alternative after Congress also declared socialism as its goal. The party experienced splits and reunions, forming various socialist parties. Leaders included Jayaprakash Narayan, Asoka Mehta, Rammanohar Lohia. Several modern parties trace their origins to the Socialist Party.
The Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), founded in 1951 with Shyama Prasad Mukherjee as President, had roots in RSS and Hindu Mahasabha. Its ideology emphasized one country, one culture, one nation based on Indian traditions (Akhand Bharat, Hindi as official language). It opposed concessions to minorities and advocated nuclear weapons. BJS remained marginal in early elections but gained support in urban Hindi-speaking states. The Bharatiya Janata Party traces its roots to BJS. (Fig. shows Deen Dayal Upadhyaya).
Film: Simhasan (1981) depicts factional struggles within a ruling party in Maharashtra, reflecting the intense power dynamics and the relatively secondary role of the opposition in that political context.
Tolerance And Management Of Factions
The Congress's coalition-like nature was a source of strength. It accommodated various groups, forcing it to adopt moderate positions and find balance on issues, making compromise and inclusiveness its hallmarks. This strategy made it difficult for opposition parties, as their ideas often found a place within the Congress's broad ideology. Furthermore, the party tolerated internal differences and ambitions through the management of **factions**. These factions, based on ideology, personal ambitions, or rivalries, provided a space for competition within the party, preventing dissatisfied leaders from leaving to form new parties.
Factionalism, instead of being a weakness, became a balancing mechanism. Leaders representing different interests remained within Congress, ensuring that political competition occurred largely *inside* the ruling party. In the first decade, Congress functioned as both the ruling party and, in a sense, the opposition, through its internal factions and their constant pressure and criticism. This period is hence described as the **‘Congress system’**.
Emergence Of Opposition Parties
Despite Congress dominance, India had a diverse range of opposition parties. Many formed before or around Independence and played important roles later. Roots of most current non-Congress parties can be traced back to these early opposition groups.
While opposition parties gained only limited representation in early Lok Sabha and state assemblies, their presence was crucial for maintaining democracy. They provided consistent criticism of Congress policies, influencing the ruling party and preventing discontent from turning anti-democratic. They also groomed future leaders. Mutual respect existed between Congress and opposition leaders in early years, with some opposition figures included in the interim government and invited to join the first cabinet (Dr. Ambedkar, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Jayaprakash Narayan). However, this mutual respect declined as party competition intensified.
The inclusive nature and role in the freedom struggle gave Congress a significant advantage. As its ability to accommodate all interests declined, other parties gained importance. Congress dominance represents one phase in Indian politics, followed by others discussed later.