| Latest Sociology NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 11th & 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 11th | 12th | ||||||||||||||||||
Chapter 2 Social Change And Social Order In Rural And Urban Society
Introduction
This chapter explores social change and social order, two fundamental concepts in sociology. While change appears constant in modern society, sociology highlights that this rapid pace is a relatively recent historical phenomenon. Understanding change requires contrasting it with social order and stability.
Change As A Constant Feature
Modern society is characterised by constant and rapid change. This is a relatively new fact in human history; the pace of change has accelerated dramatically in recent centuries, particularly in the last hundred years. Sociology emerged to understand the rapid transformations in Western European society.
Pace Of Change In Human History
Human history on Earth spans half a million years. Agriculture is only about 12,000 years old, and civilisations about 6,000. The period of constant, rapid change is only the last 400 years, with accelerating pace in the last century. If human history were a day, rapid change would occupy only the last minute.
(The "Clock of Human History" box illustrates this by compressing the entire human lifespan into a single day, showing major developments like agriculture and modern societies appearing very late.)
Social Change
Social change refers to significant transformations that alter the underlying structure, institutions, or patterns of social relations in a society over time. It doesn't include all changes, only those that are intensive (big impact) and extensive (affecting a large part of society).
Defining Social Change
Social change involves fundamental alterations in the way society is organised, its institutions, or the rules governing them. Changes must be significant and widespread to qualify.
Classification Of Social Change
Social change is often classified by its sources, nature/impact, or pace/speed.
Pace Of Change (Evolutionary, Revolutionary)
- Evolution: Slow change over a long period (e.g., biological evolution, adaptation). The term 'social Darwinism' adapted Darwin's theory to society, focusing on adaptive change.
- Revolution: Comparatively quick, sometimes sudden change, often transforming power structures (political revolution) or other fundamental aspects (Industrial Revolution, telecommunications revolution).
Nature Or Impact Of Change (Structural, Values)
- Structural Change: Transformations in the structure of society, its institutions, or rules (e.g., shift from precious metal currency to paper money changing finance structure).
- Changes in Ideas, Values, and Beliefs: Alterations in collective ideas and beliefs that influence social life (e.g., changing ideas about childhood leading to laws banning child labour and promoting compulsory education).
Causes Or Sources Of Social Change
Common sources are environmental, technological, economic, political, and cultural, often classified as internal (endogenous) or external (exogenous).
Environment
Nature and the physical environment influence society. Their impact has decreased with technology but is changing. Environmental causes of social change include:
- Natural Disasters: Sudden events (earthquakes, floods, tsunami) can drastically and irreversibly alter societies.
- Resource Discoveries: Finding valuable resources (oil, gold) can transform societies (e.g., in West Asia).
Technology And Economy
Technological and economic changes are powerful drivers of social change, especially in the modern era. Technology helps adapt to or harness nature. Combined with markets, technology's social impact is immense.
- Technological Innovations: The Industrial Revolution (steam engine transforming industry/transport), printing press (information revolution), telecommunications (changing communication/social geography) are examples of technologies causing widespread change. Impact can be immediate or delayed (lying dormant until economic context changes, e.g., gunpowder, paper in China vs. Europe).
- Economic Organisation Changes: Non-technological economic shifts can also cause change (e.g., plantation agriculture creating demand for labour and establishing slavery/slave trade; changes in trade policies/tariffs impacting industries).
(This image likely represents a technological innovation or its social consequence, illustrating how technology drives change.)
Politics
Political forces are crucial causes of social change.
- Warfare: Conquest or defeat often leads to immediate social change, as conquerors/conquered influence each other (e.g., US-Japan post-WWII, economic impact reversing power dynamics).
- Internal Political Change: Shifts in power structures within a society (e.g., end of British rule in India, end of monarchy in Nepal) redistribute power among social groups, causing social change.
- Universal Adult Franchise: The principle of 'one person, one vote' is a major political change empowering the people, pressuring governments to seek public approval, bringing about massive social changes despite persisting inequalities or imperfect implementation.
Culture
Changes in ideas, values, beliefs, and norms (cultural factors) also drive social change. Culture is a label for this broad field.
- Religion: Religious beliefs/norms organise society; changes in these beliefs transform society (e.g., impact of Buddhism in ancient India, Bhakti Movement on caste, Weber's study of Protestantism and capitalism). Religion is contextual; its impact varies.
- Changing Ideas about Groups: Evolution of ideas about women's place in society, fueled by equality struggles, has changed society (e.g., women entering factory work during WWII strengthening equality claims). Women's economic role as consumers also influences industries and media representations.
- Sports and Popular Culture: Games/sports as expressions of popular culture can acquire social importance, reflecting national/racial pride or challenging social hierarchies (e.g., cricket rivalries symbolising colonial relations or racial assertion; cricket's popularity in India changing its commercial profile).
Social change is multi-dimensional with varied forms. Its causes are often interrelated (economic, technological, cultural, political influences on each other), internal or external, planned or accidental. No single factor or theory fully explains it. Understanding social change retrospectively is common, but awareness of ongoing change is needed for adaptation.
(This image might relate to cultural aspects like religious practices, changing gender roles, or cultural symbols, illustrating how shifts in these areas lead to broader social change.)
(This image could depict political events like elections, protests, or a social movement, illustrating how political actions and power shifts are sources of social change.)
Social Order
To understand social change, we must consider its counterpart: social order, the forces within social systems that resist, regulate, or maintain continuity. Change acquires meaning against the backdrop of stability.
Social Order As Continuity
Social order refers to the tendency for social systems to reproduce themselves over time and maintain stability. It requires predictable behaviour from individuals and institutions and adherence to established rules and norms.
Reasons For Resisting Change
Societies resist change for various reasons. An abstract reason is the need for stability for a system to function and reproduce itself. More concretely, resistance often stems from social stratification. Those favourably placed in the hierarchy (dominant groups) have a vested interest in stability and resist changes that might alter their status or advantages. Subordinated groups, conversely, have a vested interest in change.
Dominant Versus Subordinated Groups
The normal state of affairs often benefits the rich and powerful, enabling them to resist change. Subordinated groups seek change to improve their position. This dynamic creates inherent tension between forces for stability and forces for change.
Maintenance Of Social Order (Consent, Coercion)
Social order is maintained through a combination of methods:
- Spontaneous consent: People voluntarily agree to abide by rules and norms.
- Compulsion/Coercion: People are forced or compelled in various ways to obey norms.
Spontaneous Consent And Socialisation
Voluntary consent arises from sharing values and norms, which are internalised through socialisation (revisit the discussion in previous chapters). While socialisation is crucial, it cannot completely eliminate individual will or produce permanent, unquestioning consent. Individuals may question past beliefs and change their minds about norms. Thus, socialisation alone is insufficient to sustain social order.
Power And Domination
Most modern societies rely on some form of power or coercion. Power is the ability to make others comply, regardless of their will. When power relationships are stable and accepted, it is called domination. Dominant institutions, groups, or individuals exercise a decisive, often seemingly smooth, influence during normal times, even though it involves unequal relationships.
Domination, Authority And Law
Domination often works through legitimate power or authority. Legitimacy is the degree of acceptance that power relations have; something legitimate is accepted as proper, just, or fitting, conforming to existing norms. Authority is defined by Max Weber as legitimate power, considered justified (e.g., power of a police officer, judge, teacher as part of their official roles). Authority is often explicitly provided by job descriptions or codified rules.
Legitimation And Authority
Legitimacy makes power acceptable and elicits consent and cooperation. Authority, as legitimate power, is widely accepted within its defined domain (e.g., judge's authority in court, teacher's in classroom). There can also be informal authority (religious leaders, scholars, gang leaders) that is not strictly defined but still effective.
Authority Types (Formal, Informal)
Authority can be explicit and codified (formal, e.g., laws defining state officials' powers) or less strictly defined (informal, e.g., influence of charismatic figures). Both are relevant to maintaining social order.
Law As Codified Norm
A law is an explicitly codified norm or rule, usually written, with clear procedures for creation/change and penalties for violation. In modern democracies, laws are enacted by elected legislatures in the name of the people and apply to all citizens, providing a formal framework for governance and regulating behaviour regardless of individual belief or agreement.
Domination works through power, much of which is legitimate authority, often codified in law. This structure of legitimation and institutional support facilitates regular cooperation and consent, though power and domination can also operate through illegitimate or non-codified means.
Contestation, Crime And Violence
The existence of power, authority, and law does not eliminate dissent. Contestation refers to broad forms of insistent disagreement. This includes:
- Competition: (as discussed earlier, e.g., elections).
- Conflict: (as discussed earlier, clash of interests).
- Other forms of dissent: (e.g., youth rebellion, protests against norms/authorities).
Open societies tolerate dissent to varying degrees, with explicit/implicit boundaries defined. Crossing these boundaries can lead to reactions, often from law enforcement.
Social order does not require sameness or unanimity; differences and dissent exist. The degree of tolerance for dissent marks a crucial boundary between legitimate and illegitimate behaviour, legal and illegal actions, acceptable and unacceptable forms of contestation.
Crime is strictly derived from law; it is an act violating an existing law. Its moral worth is separate (e.g., civil disobedience for perceived unjust laws). Crime is breaking the law, going beyond the boundary of legitimate dissent as defined by law.
Violence is an extreme form of contestation that transgresses norms and laws. A defining feature of the modern state is its supposed monopoly over the use of legitimate violence within its territory; all other violence is illegal (except exceptions like self-defense). Violence is seen as challenging social order, indicating social tensions, and marking a failure of legitimacy and consent, leading to open conflict.
(These visuals illustrate acts of crime or violence, representing phenomena that challenge and disrupt social order and the state's authority.)
Social Order And Change In Village, Town And City
Rural and urban sectors differ in living conditions and social organisation, leading to variations in the forms of social order and change prevalent in each.
Rural And Urban Distinction
Villages and towns/cities are distinguished primarily by population density and the proportion of agriculture-related economic activities. Cities/towns have much higher density and lower reliance on agriculture compared to villages. Size alone is not always decisive.
Emergence Of Villages
Villages emerged with the transition from nomadic life to settled agriculture. Sedentary farming, land investment, and technological innovations created surplus, leading to wealth accumulation, social differences, division of labour, and occupational specialisation, shaping the village as a population settlement based on a particular social organisation.
Economic And Administrative Distinction (Density, Agriculture)
Formal distinction is based on population density (higher in urban) and proportion of agriculture in economy (higher in rural). Villages have a higher share of population in agriculture and related activities.
Town And City Distinction (Size, Agglomeration, Metropolitan)
Towns and cities are essentially the same type of urban settlement, differentiated mainly by size. An urban agglomeration includes a city and surrounding areas. A metropolitan area includes multiple cities/continuous urban settlements.
Urbanisation Trends (Global, India)
Urbanisation is the process of increasing proportion of population living in urban areas. It's a global trend, accelerating over time, occurring in most countries unless specifically blocked. India has also experienced increasing urbanisation since independence.
Social Order And Social Change In Rural Areas
Social order and change differ in rural areas due to different objective conditions:
Characteristics Of Rural Social Order
Villages are small, fostering personalised relationships. Social structure follows traditional patterns; institutions like caste, religion, customary practices are stronger. Change tends to be slower.
Resistance To Change In Rural Areas
Dominant sections have greater power due to control over employment and resources, making it harder for subordinates to express dissent openly due to lack of anonymity. Strong existing power structures make dislodging them difficult, leading to stronger social order and slower shifts in power.
Impact Of Communication And Connectivity
Improved communication (telephone, TV) and transport (road, rail) have reduced rural 'isolation', accelerating change somewhat and shortening cultural lag between villages and towns.
Agricultural And Agrarian Changes In Rural Areas
Changes related to agriculture and agrarian relations profoundly impact rural societies:
- Land Reform: Altering land ownership structure (e.g., transferring rights to intermediate castes) impacts social status, economic power, and electoral politics (creating 'dominant castes'). Subsequent assertions by lower castes lead to social upheavals.
- Technological Changes: New machinery or cropping patterns alter labour demand, affecting bargaining strength between landlords and labourers.
- Economic Changes: Fluctuations in prices, droughts, floods cause havoc. Development programmes for the rural poor (e.g., MGNREGA) can have major impacts.
Social Order And Social Change In Urban Areas
Urbanism as a way of life is modern. Cities' locations and importance were historically shaped by trade, religion, and warfare. Modern city life (urbanism) is closely linked to modernity.
Urbanism And Modernity
Cities are the domain of the modern individual, offering possibilities for fulfillment through anonymity and amenities. They nurture individuality more than villages.
Freedom And Opportunity In Cities
While cities offer freedom and opportunity, they are often limited to socially and economically privileged minorities. Most urban dwellers face constraints from class, ethnicity, religion, caste, etc.
Urban Group Identities
Cities foster the development of group identities (race, religion, ethnicity, caste, region, class). High population density intensifies these identities, making them crucial for survival, resistance, and assertion strategies.
Social Order Issues Related To Space
High population density creates problems related to space and logistics. Urban social order ensures spatial viability through management of housing, transport, land use zones, public health, sanitation, policing, and governance. These tasks are complex, influenced by existing social divisions and tensions.
Housing Problems (Homelessness, Slums)
Shortage of housing, especially for the poor, leads to homelessness and the emergence of slums (congested, overcrowded areas lacking basic facilities). Slums can be breeding grounds for extra-legal activities and gangs due to lack of formal property rights and the rise of local 'strongmen'.
Gated Communities
A global and Indian phenomenon where affluent neighbourhoods are physically separated from surroundings with controlled access. They often have parallel private civic facilities, reflecting spatial segregation based on class and security concerns, impacting urban society and surrounding neighbourhoods.
(These images illustrate aspects of urban life, potentially contrasting different living conditions (slums, possibly gated communities) or depicting urban infrastructure and social interactions.)
Housing And Urban Transport Link
Housing location relative to workplaces impacts urban transport systems. If residential and work areas are far apart, extensive mass transit systems are needed. Commuting becomes a way of life and a source of stress/disruption, affecting workers' quality of life and raising issues like traffic congestion and pollution (especially with reliance on private transport).
Commuters And Sub-Cultures
Long-distance commuters can form influential political groups and develop sub-cultures, particularly in cities with extensive public transport systems (e.g., Mumbai locals' commuter associations engaging in collective activities and socialising). This demonstrates how commuting patterns can shape social life and identities.
Social Change And Space In Urban Areas
Social change in urban areas is often linked to space. Neighbourhoods experience ups and downs (e.g., city centres decline and revive). Gentrification is the transformation of lower-class neighbourhoods into middle/upper-class areas, driven by rising real estate values and developers' efforts. This process, while potentially improving areas, displaces original residents and raises questions about who benefits and decides such changes.
Mass Transport And Social Change
Changes in mass transport significantly impact urban social change, affecting connectivity, commuting patterns, and social character (e.g., impact of Metro Rail). A major challenge for rapidly urbanising countries like India is coping with continuous population growth from migration and natural increase, while managing social order and change in urban spaces.
Coping With Population Increase
Rapid population increase due to migration and natural growth is a key challenge for urban areas in countries like India. Managing the social order, infrastructure, and services amidst this growth is a continuous process of social change and adaptation.