Chapter 3 Environment And Society

Introduction

Everything we use in daily life, from clothing to furniture and energy, originates from nature. Production processes draw upon natural resources globally. This chapter explores the complex and dynamic relationship between society and the environment, examining how they have shaped each other over time and vary across different places. It highlights the importance of a sociological framework to understand urgent environmental problems and seek solutions.

Origins Of Material Objects In Nature

Every material object we use comes from nature, tracing back to natural resources like wood, metal, water, and energy sources. The production and distribution of these objects involve complex chains drawing upon nature from around the world.

Studying Social Relationships With Environment

Sociology systematically studies how social relationships with the environment have changed historically and vary geographically. Interpreting these variations sociologically is key to understanding environmental dynamics.

Ecology And Human Interaction

All societies have an ecological basis. Ecology refers to the web of physical and biological systems and processes (mountains, rivers, flora, fauna, geography, hydrology). These ecological factors limit and shape human life in specific places.

Human Modification Of Ecology

Over time, human actions have significantly modified ecology. What appears natural (e.g., aridity, flood-proneness) can be a product of human intervention (e.g., deforestation increasing floods, climate change from global warming).

Natural Versus Human Factors In Ecological Change

It is often difficult to distinguish between purely natural and human-induced factors in ecological change due to their complex interaction over time. Some ecological elements are clearly human-made (agricultural farms with domesticated species, built environment of cities using natural resources).

Social Environments From Biophysical Ecology And Human Interventions

Social environments arise from the interaction between biophysical ecology and human interventions. This is a two-way process where nature shapes society, and society shapes nature. Examples: fertile floodplains support dense populations and complex societies; deserts support nomadic pastoralists. Conversely, social organization (e.g., capitalism) has shaped nature globally (e.g., environmental impact of cars).

Nature Shapes Society, Society Shapes Nature

Nature influences social forms and cultural practices (e.g., climate affecting livelihood). Conversely, social factors (economic systems, technology, social organization) can profoundly alter natural environments (e.g., industrial pollution, deforestation, resource extraction).

Ecological Effects Of Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution's ecological effects were felt worldwide, transforming distant lands for resource extraction (plantations for cotton) and labor (slave trade from Africa), and polluting urban/rural environments in Britain (smoke from mills). The 'ecological footprint' of industries spread globally.

Social Organisation And Environment Interaction

The interaction is shaped by social organisation, particularly property relations (who owns/controls resources like forests, land, water) and division of labour (how different social groups relate to resources based on their role, e.g., women collecting fuel/water but not controlling resources). Social organisation influences how different groups experience and interact with the environment.

Social Values, Norms, Knowledge Systems And Environment

Different social values, norms, and knowledge systems underlie varying relationships with the environment. Capitalism's values promote commodification of nature for profit. Socialist values promote redistribution of resources. Religious values can lead to conservation or exploitation. Perspectives on environment-society relations are influenced by social context (e.g., ideas about innate ability and disadvantage linked to social equality notions).

Environmental Management Difficulties And Risks

Environmental management is complex due to insufficient knowledge of biophysical processes and increasing complexity of human-environment relations with industrialisation (accelerated resource extraction, unprecedented ecosystem impact). Complex industrial technologies and organisations are vulnerable to error, leading to risks (risk societies) and potential disasters (Chernobyl, Bhopal, Mad Cow disease). The Bhopal disaster exemplifies the dangers of industrial accidents, also highlighting how social factors (political connections, business interests, regulatory failures) contributed to the tragedy.

(The "Bhopal Industrial Disaster" box details how corporate interests, government negligence, and social connections intertwined to enable the tragedy, despite repeated warnings. It serves as a case study for analyzing the social roots of environmental disasters.)

Major Environmental Problems And Risks

Globally, several major environmental problems and risks are recognised:

Globally Recognized Environmental Hazards

These are the main environmental issues acknowledged worldwide, though their urgency may vary regionally.

Resource Depletion

Using up non-renewable resources. Key issues:

• Water: Depletion/destruction of surface and groundwater (aquifers) due to over-extraction for agriculture, industry, urban use. Filling up water bodies.
• Land/Soil: Destruction of topsoil due to erosion, water-logging, salinisation from poor management, and brick production.
• Biodiversity: Depletion/destruction of habitats (forests, grasslands, wetlands) due to agricultural expansion and other factors, leading to species endangerment and loss of unique species (e.g., tigers).

(This image likely illustrates an example of resource depletion, such as deforestation, drought, or overfishing, representing the issue of using up natural resources.)

Pollution

Contamination of the environment. Key issues:

• Air Pollution: From industry, vehicles, burning wood/coal. Causes respiratory/other illnesses and deaths. Indoor pollution (cooking fires) is a significant risk, particularly for rural women. Outdoor pollution is also a major health risk.
• Water Pollution: Surface and groundwater contamination from domestic sewage, factory effluents, farm runoff (fertilisers, pesticides). Rivers and water bodies are seriously affected.
• Noise Pollution: From loudspeakers, traffic, construction. Subject of court orders in cities.

(This image likely shows pollution from industrial sources, such as smoke stacks emitting pollution or waste being discharged, illustrating industrial pollution.)

Global Warming

Release of greenhouse gases (CO2, methane) trapping heat, causing global temperature rise and climate change. Projected effects: melting polar ice, sea-level rise (submerging coastal areas), ecological imbalance, increased climate fluctuations/uncertainty. China and India are significant contributors to emissions.

Genetically Modified Organisms

Introducing genes from one species to another. Used to enhance crop traits (pest resistance, faster growth, size, shelf-life). Concerns: unknown long-term effects on human health/ecosystems; potential for companies to create sterile seeds, increasing farmer dependence.

(This image illustrates agricultural practices, possibly related to the use of pesticides or genetically modified crops, relevant to environmental concerns about farming methods and GMOs.)

Natural And Man-Made Environmental Disasters

Catastrophic events with significant environmental and social impact. Natural disasters: earthquakes, tsunami, floods. Man-made disasters: industrial accidents (Bhopal gas leak), wars.

Why Environmental Problems Are Also Social Problems

Environmental problems are intrinsically linked to social problems because their impact is shaped by social inequality. Social status and power determine vulnerability and capacity to cope.

Environmental Problems And Social Inequality

The ability to insulate oneself from or overcome environmental crises depends on social status and power. Solutions for privileged groups may worsen environmental disparities for others (e.g., rich farmers using tubewells depleting groundwater for poorer villagers).

Universal Concerns Versus Particular Interests

While issues like air pollution or biodiversity seem universally beneficial, their prioritisation and pursuit can serve interests of politically/economically powerful groups or harm the poor. The 'environment as public interest' is contested; sociological analysis reveals how social power influences environmental decision-making and its unequal outcomes (e.g., debates over dams, protected areas displacing vulnerable populations).

Social Ecology Perspective

The school of social ecology argues that environmental perceptions and practices are shaped by social relations, particularly property and production organisation. Different social groups have varied relationships with the environment and conflicting interests (e.g., forestry vs. artisan use of bamboo). Environmental conflicts stem from these varied interests and ideologies.

(Murray Bookchin's quote from the founder of social ecology highlights that environmental problems originate from deep-seated social problems and cannot be resolved without addressing economic, ethnic, cultural, and gender conflicts within society.)

Environmental Conflicts From Varied Interests

Conflicts arise due to differing interests and approaches to using environmental resources, shaped by social position and economic roles. These conflicts are rooted in social inequality.

Addressing Environmental Problems Requires Changing Social Relations

Resolving environmental problems requires changing environment-society relations, which in turn necessitates changing relations between different social groups (men/women, urban/rural, landlords/labourers). Changed social relations can lead to new knowledge systems and environmental management modes.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development aims to meet present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet theirs. It prioritises the needs of the world's poor and acknowledges environmental limitations imposed by technology/social organization. It requires balancing ecology and economy.

(Brundtland Report definition highlights key concepts of need-based development and environmental limits.)

Capitalism, Consumption, And Inequality

Modern capitalist development is driven by consumption and inequality. Emphasis on growth and profit, along with existing social stratification, allows some to control most resources/opportunities. This system is seen as unsustainable due to resource depletion and marginalisation of the poor.

(Mahatma Gandhi's quote contrasts Western industrialism's exploitative potential with the idea of sustainable limits.)

Farmer Suicides: Environmental And Economic Factors

Farmer suicides exemplify environmental and economic factors intertwined. Investigation shows distress from volatile agrarian conditions due to market exposure (liberalisation) and declining government support. High-risk crops (cotton) require costly inputs (irrigation, pesticides), leading to debt from moneylenders. Crop failure results in financial/social ruin, driving farmers to suicide, highlighting how economic policies and environmental factors (water depletion, pest resistance) interact with social conditions (debt, family obligations).

Urban Spatial Conflicts

As cities grow, conflict over urban space intensifies. Poor migrants settle on public lands due to lack of affordable housing. These lands are then contested for building infrastructure (malls, hotels) for affluent residents/visitors, leading to eviction of the poor. This illustrates conflict over space and resources (land, water, sanitation) shaped by social inequality (class, status) and control of property, making access to essential resources highly contested in urban environments.

(The extract highlights urbanisation leading to spatial conflict, homelessness, slums, and contestation over urban resources like land, air, and water, driven by social inequalities and the demands of urban development.)

Gated Communities

Affluent neighbourhoods walled off from surroundings, reflecting spatial segregation based on class and security concerns. They have parallel private amenities. This reinforces urban social inequality and affects surrounding neighbourhoods.

(This image depicts a gated community, illustrating the phenomenon of spatial segregation and the creation of exclusive residential areas in urban centers.)

Contested Urban Resources

Land, air, and water become highly contested resources in urban environments due to high demand and unequal access. Conflicts arise over allocation and use, shaped by social power and inequality.