Chapter 7 Mass Media And Communications

The Beginnings Of Modern Mass Media

Mass media refers to various forms of communication, including television, newspapers, films, magazines, radio, advertisements, video games, and CDs, which reach large audiences. In contemporary society, mass media is an inseparable part of everyday life, from checking mobile phones upon waking to accessing news and entertainment throughout the day. Its widespread use facilitates connectivity across distances, for instance, enabling migrants to stay in touch with families or connecting Indians abroad with relatives back home.

The significant expansion of mass communication is a key area of sociological interest. To understand this growth, it is important to trace the historical development of modern mass media and recognize that, like other social institutions, its structure and content are influenced by economic, political, and socio-cultural contexts. The relationship between mass media and society is dialectical; they mutually influence each other. For example, while state vision shaped media in early independent India, the market gained influence in the post-1990 globalisation era.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication due to the need for formal organizational structures, significant capital investment, and large-scale production and management capabilities. Consequently, the state and/or the market play a major role in shaping mass media. It's also crucial to note the uneven access to mass media across different segments of the population, highlighted by concepts like the digital divide.

The advent of modern mass media began with the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. Initially used for religious texts, the print industry grew significantly with the Industrial Revolution.

In the mid-19th century, technological advancements in printing and transportation, coupled with increasing literacy, allowed newspapers to reach a mass audience. This ability for geographically dispersed people to consume the same information contributed to a sense of connection and shared identity. Benedict Anderson argued that this facilitated the growth of nationalism by creating an 'imagined community' – a feeling of belonging among people who would never meet but shared common media experiences.

In colonial India, the nationalist press played a crucial role in fostering and channeling anti-colonial public opinion, often facing censorship and opposition from the British government (e.g., during the Ilbert Bill agitation in 1883). Despite this, nationalist newspapers like Kesari, Mathrubhumi, and Amrita Bazar Patrika advocated for India's freedom.

During British rule, mass media included state-owned radio (used for propaganda), and newspapers and films, which, despite some autonomy, were strictly monitored. Circulation of print media was limited by literacy rates, but news and information spread through word of mouth from commercial and administrative centers. The print media provided a platform for diverse nationalist opinions.

Mass Media In Independent India

After achieving independence, mass media in India was envisioned by leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru as a crucial instrument for nation-building and social change, acting as a 'watchdog of democracy'.

Approach in Independent India

The media was tasked with promoting self-reliance and national development, disseminating information about developmental efforts, and actively campaigning against social evils like untouchability, child marriage, and discrimination against widows. The goal was to foster a rational, scientific outlook essential for building a modern industrial society. The government's Films Division produced newsreels and documentaries showcasing developmental progress, which were mandatorily shown in cinemas.

Radio

Radio broadcasting in India began with amateur clubs in the 1920s, developing into a public system (All India Radio - AIR) during World War II. At independence in 1947, there were six radio stations in major cities and a limited number of radio sets. Prioritizing expansion, the government developed AIR's infrastructure significantly, establishing a three-tiered service (national, regional, local) to cater to India's diversity.

In the early years, AIR's programming focused on news, current affairs, and developmental discussions, reflecting its role as a partner in nation-building (Box 7.2 highlights AIR's campaign for high-yielding crop varieties during the Green Revolution). Vividh Bharati, an entertainment channel primarily playing Hindi film songs, was acquired by AIR in 1957 and became a commercially successful channel.

The transistor revolution of the 1960s made radios more affordable and portable, greatly increasing listenership, including in rural areas. AIR's reach continued to expand, notably spurred by national crises like wars or assassinations (Box 7.3), leading to round-the-clock news bulletins. By 2000, a large majority of Indian households had access to radio broadcasts in multiple languages and dialects. As of today, AIR has a vast network covering almost the entire population and area of the country.

Television

Television was introduced experimentally in India as early as 1959, initially for rural development (e.g., Satellite Instructional Television Experiment - SITE in 1975-76, broadcasting instructional programs to rural communities). Doordarshan (DD) stations were established in major cities by the mid-1970s, offering a mix of news, informational, and entertainment programs tailored to local audiences.

The 1982 Asian Games in Delhi saw the introduction of color broadcasting and rapid network expansion, accelerating the commercialization of television as programs carried advertisements. Indigenous soap operas like 'Hum Log' (1984-85) and 'Buniyaad' (1986-87), and epic serials like 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata', gained immense popularity, attracting substantial advertising revenue for Doordarshan. 'Hum Log' was notable for using entertainment to convey educational messages on themes like gender equality and family planning (Box 7.4), demonstrating the media's potential for social impact and highlighting the power of television commercials (Box 7.5 links Maggi noodles' success to Hum Log advertising).

The TV market in India is vast, currently ranked second globally. By 2016, a significant majority of Indian households had TV sets with access to cable, DTH, and IPTV services, alongside Doordarshan's network.

Print Media

The print media, particularly newspapers and magazines, had been crucial during the freedom movement. After independence, they continued to view themselves as partners in nation-building, focusing on developmental issues and providing a platform for diverse voices. While facing challenges like censorship during the 1975 Emergency, the Indian media has largely maintained its freedom.

The growth of mass media requires substantial investment and formal organization, involving state and market forces. Over time, the content and style of media have shifted, with the state's role diminishing and the market's influence growing, leading to debates about the media's role in a modern democracy.

Globalisation And The Media

Globalisation, closely linked to the communication revolution, has profoundly transformed the media landscape over the last three decades. While media has always had international aspects (e.g., news gathering), until the 1970s, media companies primarily operated within national markets under government regulation. Media sectors (cinema, print, radio, TV) were also more distinct.

In the globalisation era, national markets have become integrated into a global market, and new technologies have blurred the lines between different media forms. The music industry (Box 7.7) serves as an example, with music's ability to cross language barriers and new technologies (CDs, internet downloads) changing its distribution and consumption, challenging traditional industry structures.

Print Media

Contrary to fears that electronic media would displace print, newspaper circulation in India has grown significantly in recent decades (Box 7.8 shows substantial growth in average daily circulation). This is particularly true for Indian language newspapers, whose readership has expanded significantly, while English dailies have shown stagnation (Box 7.9 highlights the dominance of Hindi dailies in readership). The growth in Hindi readership is linked to migration from Hindi-speaking regions to cities.

Reasons for this growth include:

• Increased literacy and urban migration creating a larger readership base.
• Indian language newspapers catering to the specific needs and interests of readers in small towns and villages, which differ from urban readers.
• Innovation by vernacular newspapers, such as introducing district and block editions with local news and advertisements (e.g., Eenadu's success, Box 7.8).
• Using simplified, colloquial language (e.g., Dina Thanthi).

Newspapers have adopted advanced printing technologies and marketing strategies (consumer contact programs, surveys) to reach wider audiences and compete with electronic media. This highlights the increasing formal structural organization and market orientation of the print media industry. Technology has also transformed newspaper production and reporting, with automation and digital tools enabling faster news gathering, later deadlines, and more editions (Box 7.10).

To compete, English newspapers have reduced prices and launched multiple city-specific editions and supplements. While print media has expanded, this has involved price cuts and increased reliance on advertising, giving advertisers greater influence over content. The concept of 'infotainment' (combining information and entertainment) has emerged to retain readers (Box 7.11), sometimes raising concerns about the potential neglect of serious issues as content becomes more market-driven.

Television

The transformation of television in India is one of the most dramatic impacts of globalisation. From a single state-controlled channel (Doordarshan) in 1991, the number of private satellite channels multiplied rapidly, reaching around 70 by 1998 and approximately 900 by 2020. This proliferation of private satellite TV is a defining feature of contemporary India.

The advent of private satellite channels was spurred by events like the 1991 Gulf War (popularizing CNN) and the launch of Star-TV. Indian private channels like Zee TV followed, initially broadcasting to cable viewers. By 2000, numerous channels, including regional language ones, were available. Meanwhile, the cable television industry also grew rapidly in cities, providing alternative entertainment options through VCRs and wired networks.

The entry of transnational TV companies initially caused concerns about the impact on Indian youth and cultural identity. However, these companies soon adopted strategies of localisation to appeal to the diverse Indian audience. This involved introducing Hindi language programming segments or dedicated channels (e.g., STAR Plus changing to a solely Hindi channel, using Hinglish slogans, Box 7.12), providing dual commentary/audio tracks in Hindi for sports channels, and launching regional language channels.

Dubbing foreign programs, especially for younger audiences, is also a form of localisation. Television, with 24x7 channels, has made news more immediate and accessible, fostering public debate. However, concerns exist about whether the focus shifts away from serious political/economic issues towards more sensational or entertainment-oriented content (Box 7.12 example of 'Rescue of Prince').

Entertainment television has led to the rise of new media personalities and popular formats like reality shows, talk shows, and family soaps (Box 7.13 defines soap operas), many modeled on Western programs. These shows and the personal lives of TV celebrities often feature prominently in popular media.

Radio

Despite the growth of TV and internet, radio remains relevant. By 2000, AIR reached a large portion of Indian households. The launch of privately owned FM radio stations in 2002 significantly boosted entertainment programming on radio. To attract audiences, these FM channels focus on popular music genres, as they are generally not permitted to broadcast political news bulletins. Many popular FM stations are owned by large media conglomerates. However, independent public broadcasting radio stations are largely absent from the Indian landscape.

Radio is still portrayed as an active communication medium in contemporary films. The potential for expanding FM channels and developing community-owned radio stations is significant, particularly given the growing demand for local news and content. The example of Raghav FM in rural Bihar (Box 7.14) illustrates the ingenuity of local initiatives in using radio to cater to community needs, broadcasting local news, public interest messages, and popular music, reinforcing the trend of local radio networks and highlighting the demand for culturally relevant content at the grassroots level.