Chapter 2 Cultural Change

Social Reform Movements In The 19th And Early 20th Century

Building upon the previous chapter's discussion of structural changes brought by colonialism (industrialisation, urbanisation, changes in living and working arrangements), this chapter delves into related transformations in Indian culture, encompassing ways of life, norms, values, fashion, and even non-verbal communication. Sociologically, 'social structure' refers to ongoing relationships shaped by institutions, while 'culture' denotes socially established patterns of behavior and norms. The structural changes under colonialism are crucial for understanding these cultural shifts.

This chapter examines two primary areas of cultural change linked to colonial rule: conscious social reform efforts targeting discriminatory practices and less deliberate cultural shifts understood through concepts like sanskritisation, westernisation, secularisation, and modernisation.

The social reform movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries emerged in response to challenges within colonial Indian society, specifically addressing what were perceived as 'social evils' like sati (widow immolation), child marriage, the ban on widow remarriage, and caste discrimination. While pre-colonial India saw movements challenging social discrimination (e.g., Buddhism, Bhakti, Sufi traditions), the 19th-century movements were distinct due to their modern context and unique blend of ideas.

These reform efforts creatively combined modern Western liberal ideas (such as individual rights, equality, and rationality) with a critical re-examination of traditional Indian texts and literature. Reformers drew arguments from both sources to advocate for change. For instance, Raja Rammohun Roy opposed sati using both humanitarian principles and interpretations of Hindu scriptures (shastras). Similarly, M.G. Ranade argued for widow remarriage by referencing Vedic texts (Box 2.1). Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a Muslim reformer, blended modern scientific thought with interpretations of the Quran to advocate for free inquiry and girls' education, though initially within traditional settings.

Sociologist Satish Saberwal highlights three modern aspects that shaped the framework of change in colonial India:

1. Modes of Communication: New technologies like the printing press, telegraph, steamships, and railways accelerated the spread of ideas and facilitated interaction between reformers across different regions of India (e.g., Punjab, Bengal, Madras, Maharashtra).
2. Forms of Organisation: Modern social and religious organizations were established (e.g., Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, All-India Muslim Ladies Conference), providing platforms for debate and collective action.
3. Nature of Ideas: New liberal ideas about freedom, democracy, marriage, family roles, and the importance of education emerged. Education was increasingly seen as essential for both national modernity and preserving cultural heritage. The debate around female education was central, with reformers arguing for it based on both modern notions of progress and selective interpretations of tradition.

These movements fostered a period of questioning, reinterpretation of tradition, and intellectual and social growth. While sharing common goals, the reform movements also had differences, such as whether to focus on issues affecting mainly upper castes or prioritize the injustices faced by discriminated castes, and whether social evils were deviations from true religious spirit or inherent aspects of the religion itself.

Debates on social practices like polygamy and purdah were also prominent among Muslim reformers and within the Muslim community, as evidenced by discussions in publications like Tahsib-e-Niswan. Resistance to reform also occurred, with orthodox groups challenging reformers' interpretations of religious texts.

The Mix of Ideas in Social Reforms

The social reform movements of the 19th century were characterized by a synthesis of traditional religious interpretations and modern rationalist thought. For example:

• Raja Ram Mohun Roy combined appeals to universal humanitarian rights with arguments from Hindu shastras to oppose practices like Sati.
• Reformers like Ranade used Vedic authorities to support the remarriage of widows, demonstrating that seemingly 'traditional' practices could be justified within the framework of ancient texts themselves.
• The new Western education curriculum exposed Indians to humanist, secular, and liberal ideas from the European Renaissance and Enlightenment.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan blended modern scientific validity with Islamic thought, emphasizing free inquiry (ijtihad) and seeking parallels between Koranic revelations and scientific laws.
• Thinkers like Kandukiri Viresalingam combined knowledge of traditional Indian logic (navyanyaya) with modern scientific ideas from figures like biologist Julius Huxley.

This complex interplay shows that the reformers were not simply adopting Western ideas but were actively engaging with and reinterpreting their own traditions in light of new knowledge and values.

Different Kinds Of Social Change

Sociologists use several concepts to understand the complex processes of cultural change in India, particularly those influenced by colonialism. Four key concepts are sanskritisation, westernisation, modernisation, and secularisation. These processes often overlap and coexist, sometimes even within the same individual, leading to situations where a person might appear modern in some ways while adhering to tradition in others. Sociology aims to move beyond simply observing these co-occurrences to explain the underlying dynamics.

Colonial modernity in India presented paradoxes. Western education, for instance, created an English-educated Indian middle class exposed to Enlightenment thinkers and liberal democratic ideals. While aspiring to a progressive India, this group also grappled with the humiliation of colonial rule, leading some to assert pride in traditional learning and scholarship.

Cultural change is a dynamic process; culture and tradition are not static but are learned, adapted, and modified by people over time. For example, the contemporary way the sari is worn by middle-class women is a modern adaptation combining the traditional garment with Western undergarments like the petticoat and blouse. India's diverse structure (caste, class, region, etc.) means that these processes of change impact different groups and individuals in varied ways, sometimes leading to complex outcomes and internal contradictions within individuals or communities.

Sanskritisation

The concept of Sanskritisation, coined by M.N. Srinivas, describes a process where a 'low' caste, tribe, or other group adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and lifestyle of a higher caste, specifically a 'twice-born' (dwija) caste. This process can influence various aspects of life, including language, literature, music, dance, and ritual practices. Srinivas noted that it could even occur in non-Hindu religious groups.

Sanskritisation often aims to improve the adopting group's position in the local caste hierarchy, typically following improvements in their economic or political status, or increased group consciousness gained through contact with centers of Hindu tradition or proselytizing sects. However, in India's highly unequal society, higher castes traditionally resisted and even punished lower castes attempting to adopt their practices (as illustrated by Kumud Pawade's experience studying Sanskrit, Box 2.2).

Sanskritisation implies a desire for upward mobility by emulating culturally higher groups. This aspiration often becomes prominent when groups experience increased wealth. However, the concept has faced several criticisms:

1. Exaggerates Mobility: It suggests social mobility but describes a positional change (individuals/groups moving up within the hierarchy) rather than structural change (altering the unequal system itself). Inequality persists.
2. Validates Hierarchy: The concept inherently accepts the superiority of upper-caste ways and the inferiority of lower-caste ways, viewing imitation as natural and desirable.
3. Justifies Inequality: It seems to legitimize the ideology of purity and pollution underlying the caste system.
4. Negative Social Consequences: It can lead to the adoption of practices detrimental to women (seclusion, dowry) and the perpetuation of caste discrimination against groups lower than the aspiring caste.
5. Erosion of Dalit Culture: It devalues the unique cultural heritage of 'lower castes', including the dignity of manual labor and traditional knowledge systems associated with various occupations, rendering them 'shameful' in the context of sanskritisation.

Counter-movements, such as the anti-Brahminical movement and the rise of regional self-consciousness, have challenged the dominance of Sanskritic influence and emphasized secular factors in social mobility. Dominant castes have also shown less desire to emulate the highest varnas and instead asserted pride in their own caste identity. More recently, Dalit assertions similarly reflect pride in their identity.

Westernisation

Westernisation, as defined by M.N. Srinivas, refers to the changes in Indian society and culture resulting from over 150 years of British rule, encompassing transformations in technology, institutions, ideology, and values.

Westernisation occurred in different forms:

• Elite Subculture: The emergence of a minority of Indians who adopted Western cognitive patterns (ways of thinking) and lifestyles, and often supported the spread of Western culture. Early social reformers were sometimes part of this group.
• General Spread: The wider adoption of Western cultural traits like technology (TV, fridge), dress, food habits, and general lifestyle changes across broader sections of the population, particularly the middle class.

Crucially, Westernisation often involves the adoption of external cultural forms without necessarily internalizing associated values like democracy and equality. It is possible for individuals to adopt Western attire or lifestyles while holding conservative or discriminatory views (e.g., using modern technology like ultrasound for female foeticide, Box 2.3 Activity). This contradiction is not unique to non-Western societies; discriminatory attitudes also exist within Western societies.

Western influence also shaped Indian art and literature. Artists like Raja Ravi Varma blended Indian subjects and styles with Western techniques and compositional elements, sometimes depicting Indian social structures (like a matrilineal family) using the visual format of Western bourgeois nuclear family portraits (Box 2.2).

Generational conflicts are sometimes attributed to Westernisation, particularly among the middle class (Box 2.3). However, Westernisation is not the sole cause of such conflicts, and conflict itself is not inherently negative. Furthermore, Westernisation was not limited to upper castes; groups from diverse backgrounds, including 'lower castes' like Thiyyas in Kerala and various groups in the North-East (Box 2.4), actively embraced Western education and cultural elements as a means of upward mobility, critiquing caste, gaining new opportunities, and facilitating communication.

Modernisation And Secularisation

The term Modernisation historically implied adopting the development path of Western Europe and North America, suggesting that other societies should follow suit. Initially focused on technological and production improvements, the concept broadened to encompass a wider set of societal changes (Rudolph and Rudolph, 1967).

Sociological definitions of modernity often highlight shifts from:

• Local and parochial perspectives to universal and cosmopolitan attitudes.
• Truths based on emotion, the sacred, and the non-rational to those based on utility, calculation, and science.
• The group as the primary unit to the individual.
• Associations based on birth (ascription) to those based on choice (achievement).
• Fatalism towards the environment to a stance of mastery.
• Identity based on ascription to identity based on chosen achievement.
• Integration of work with family and community to separation of work in bureaucratic organizations.

In essence, modernisation involves a move towards individualism, rationality, a scientific outlook, and achievement-based status. India's experience with modernisation is distinct due to its colonial history, where the beginnings of capitalism and exposure to modern ideas occurred within a colonial framework (Box 2.4, Phule's critique). This led to a complex process involving not just adopting new ideas but also reinterpreting tradition.

Secularisation in the Western context typically means a decline in the influence of religion in public life and institutions, becoming a private matter. It is often assumed to be a natural outcome of modernisation.

However, in India, the meaning and process of secularisation are more complex. Besides the Western sense of separation of state and religion, secularism in India also means equal respect for all religions (sarva dharma samabhava), where the state does not favor any one religion but may engage with and provide support to all religious communities (e.g., declaring holidays for festivals of all religions).

The assumption that modernisation necessarily leads to the decline of religious influence is not universally true. In India, modern communication and organization methods facilitated the emergence of new religious reform movements. Furthermore, Indian rituals often serve secular purposes, providing occasions for social interaction, status display (e.g., showing wealth at weddings, Box 2.5), and reinforcing social hierarchies, distinct from purely religious goals.

A significant debate concerns the 'secularisation of caste'. Traditionally based on religious concepts of purity and pollution, caste in contemporary India increasingly operates as a secular force, particularly as political pressure groups. Caste associations and caste-based political parties mobilize members to demand resources and influence the state (Box 2.5). This shift in the function of caste from a primarily ritualistic framework to a political one is referred to as its secularisation, demonstrating how traditional social structures adapt to modern political contexts.

Conclusion

This chapter demonstrates that social change in India has followed distinct patterns, heavily influenced by the colonial experience. The impact of colonialism was profound, often leading to unintended and paradoxical outcomes. Western ideas of modernity played a significant role, shaping the vision of Indian nationalists and prompting diverse responses to tradition – from reinterpretation to outright rejection. Western cultural forms influenced various aspects of life, from family structures to artistic expression.

The powerful ideas of equality and democracy had a major impact, evident in both social reform and the nationalist movement. This influence resulted not just in adopting Western concepts but also in an active questioning and reinterpretation of existing traditions and social practices, particularly those reinforcing inequality and discrimination.