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Chapter 3 Human Development
Introduction
Human life involves continuous changes from conception to death. Individuals grow and develop, acquiring skills like communication, walking, counting, reading, and writing. They learn social norms, form relationships, go through puberty, marry, parent, and age. While unique, humans share common developmental milestones (e.g., walking by age one, talking by age two). This chapter explores these life-span changes in different domains.
Understanding human development offers insights into personal growth and aids in better interactions with others.
Meaning Of Development
Development encompasses the progressive, orderly, and predictable changes occurring throughout life, starting from conception. While physical changes are often the most noticeable, development includes changes in thinking, language use, and social relationships. Development involves both growth (increase) and decline (decrease, particularly in old age), integrated across different aspects of a person's life.
Development is shaped by the interaction of three types of processes:
- Biological Processes: Changes rooted in genetics inherited from parents, affecting physical traits like height, weight, and the development of organs like the brain, heart, and lungs.
- Cognitive Processes: Changes related to mental abilities involved in knowing, experiencing, and thinking, including thought, perception, attention, and problem-solving.
- Socio-emotional Processes: Changes in interactions with others, emotions, and personality development, such as a child showing affection or an adolescent expressing sadness.
These biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes are interconnected and influence the individual's development across their entire lifespan.
Life-Span Perspective On Development
The Life-Span Perspective (LSP) offers a comprehensive view of development based on several assumptions:
- Development is Lifelong: It is a continuous process from conception through old age, involving both gains and losses that interact dynamically.
- Processes are Interwoven: Biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes are integrated throughout life.
- Development is Multi-directional: Some abilities or dimensions may improve with age, while others may decline (e.g., wisdom may increase, while speed on tasks decreases).
- Development is Plastic: Psychological development is modifiable throughout life, meaning skills and abilities can be improved or developed, although plasticity varies among individuals.
- Development is Historically Situated: Experiences are shaped by the historical context of the time (e.g., the experiences of young people during a freedom struggle differ from those today).
- Development is Multidisciplinary: Various fields like psychology, anthropology, sociology, and neuroscience contribute to understanding human development across the lifespan.
- Individuals Act on Contexts: Development is influenced by the interaction between inherited factors, the physical environment, and socio-cultural, historical, and cultural contexts. Life events (positive or negative) and changing contexts also impact development.
Growth, Development, Maturation, And Evolution
| Term | Description |
|---|---|
| Growth | Refers specifically to an increase in the physical size of body parts or the whole organism (e.g., height, weight). It is quantifiable. |
| Development | A broader process of change throughout the life cycle, including growth. These changes have a direction, build upon what came before, and influence what follows. Development involves varied changes (size, proportion, features, new abilities). |
| Maturation | Changes that follow a predictable, orderly sequence largely determined by genetic inheritance. These genetically dictated changes are common to a species (e.g., sitting, standing, walking milestones in infants). Maturation prepares the underlying physical structure for specific behaviours. |
| Evolution | Species-specific changes occurring over vast time periods, driven by natural selection, favouring traits that aid survival and reproduction. Evolutionary changes are passed down across generations within a species and occur at a very slow pace (e.g., the emergence of Homo sapiens). |
Development is a comprehensive process that includes growth as one aspect. Maturation refers to genetically programmed changes that enable development, while evolution is a species-level process occurring over much longer timescales.
Factors Influencing Development
Human differences in physical characteristics (skin color, height) and psychological traits (intelligence, personality) are evident, yet all humans belong to the same species. These similarities and differences are explained by the interaction of heredity and environment.
Heredity: We inherit genetic codes (genes) from our parents. While our individual genetic makeup is unique, we share the human genetic code, ensuring that a fertilised human egg develops into a human baby. Most traits result from combinations of a large number of genes.
- Genotype: A person's actual genetic material or inherited genetic heritage.
- Phenotype: The observable and measurable expression of an individual's genotype in physical (height, eye color) and psychological (intelligence, personality) characteristics.
Genes provide a blueprint and timetable, predisposing a child to develop in a particular way. However, development occurs within the individual's environment.
Environment: The environment interacts with genetic predispositions, shaping development. For example, an introverted child's genetic tendency may be slightly modified by an environment that encourages social interaction. Genes set limits; environmental influences operate within these genetic boundaries (e.g., good nutrition can maximise height but not exceed the genetic potential for shortness).
Parents influence their children's environment, partly based on their own genetic predispositions (e.g., intelligent, reading parents providing books). A child's inherited traits (like being cooperative) can also evoke different responses from others (teachers, parents), creating different environments. Children actively choose environments based on their genotype (e.g., musically inclined children seeking musical environments).
These interactions between genes and environment are complex and change throughout development, making each individual unique.
Context Of Development
Development is always embedded in a specific socio-cultural context. Transitions like starting school, becoming an adolescent, or getting married are influenced by both biological changes and environmental factors. The environment is dynamic and can change throughout a person's life.
Urie Bronfenbrenner's contextual view highlights the crucial role of environmental systems in development:
(An image depicting Bronfenbrenner's concentric ecological systems: The Individual at the center, surrounded by Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, and Chronosystem represented as outer layers.)
- Microsystem: The individual's immediate settings, where direct interactions occur (family, school, peers, neighbourhood).
- Mesosystem: Connections between different parts of the microsystem (e.g., interaction between parents and teachers, parents' view of peers).
- Exosystem: Social settings where the individual is not directly involved but which affect their immediate context (e.g., parents' workplace affecting family life, availability of community resources like libraries or healthcare).
- Macrosystem: The larger cultural context, including societal attitudes, ideologies, beliefs, and traditions.
- Chronosystem: The influence of time and historical events (e.g., divorce, economic setback) or socio-historical circumstances on the individual's life course.
Bronfenbrenner's model emphasises that development is affected by the complex layers of the environment. Research shows that impoverished environments, lacking stimulation and resources, can disadvantage children's learning and development.
Durganand Sinha's ecological model for the Indian context describes two concentric layers influencing child development:
- Upper/Visible Layers: Immediate factors like home conditions (space, resources), schooling (quality, exposure), and interactions with peer groups.
- Surrounding Layers: Broader, less visible factors like the geographical environment (play space, congestion), institutional settings (caste, class), and general amenities (drinking water, electricity, entertainment).
These layers interact, and environmental contexts change throughout life. Understanding individual differences requires viewing individuals within their specific environmental experiences.
Overview Of Developmental Stages
Human development is often described as progressing through distinct stages or periods, each characterised by dominant features and specific behaviours. Individuals vary in the rate they move through stages, but the sequence is generally considered universal. Each stage is associated with specific developmental tasks – accomplishments considered typical or expected for that age, becoming social expectations.
Prenatal Stage
This period, from conception to birth (approx. 40 weeks), is crucial. Development is guided by both genetic blueprint and environmental factors. Maternal characteristics like age, nutrition, and emotional state influence prenatal development. Diseases (rubella, HIV) or infections in the mother can cause problems. Teratogens are environmental agents (drugs, infections, radiations, pollutants) that can cause developmental abnormalities or death. Maternal use of drugs, alcohol, or tobacco, exposure to radiation (X-rays), chemicals (mercury, lead), or pollutants (carbon monoxide) are dangers to the unborn child.
Infancy
The period from birth to about two years. The brain develops rapidly. Newborns have most brain cells, with neural connections forming quickly. Newborns are not helpless; they have reflexes for survival (breathing, sucking) and abilities like sound localisation, voice recognition (mother's), and simple imitation.
Motor Development
Newborn movements are governed by reflexes, automatic responses essential for survival and building blocks for later voluntary control. Some reflexes persist (coughing), others disappear as the brain matures (see Table 3.1).
| Reflex | Description | Developmental Course |
|---|---|---|
| Rooting | Turning head and opening mouth when cheek touched. | Disappears between 3 and 6 months. |
| Moro | Startle reaction to loud noise: arms out, back arches, arms come together. | Disappears in 6 to 7 months (reaction to noise is permanent). |
| Grasp | Fingers close around object pressed in palm. | Disappears in 3 to 4 months; replaced by voluntary grasping. |
| Babinski | Toes fan out then curl when sole of foot is stroked. | Disappears in 8 to 12 months. |
As infants grow, muscle/nervous system maturation enables basic physical skills like grasping, reaching, sitting, crawling, walking, running. Motor development follows universal sequences:
- Cephalocaudal trend: Development from head to tail (control over upper body before lower body, e.g., head size disproportionate, using arms before legs for crawling).
- Proximodistal trend: Development from centre of body outwards to extremities (control over torso before arms/legs, e.g., entire body turning before extending arm to reach).
These trends result from nervous system maturation.
Sensory Abilities
Infants have significant sensory capabilities at birth or soon after. They prefer faces, although visual preferences change. Vision improves significantly by 6 months and is near adult level by age one. Colour vision develops fully by 3 months. Hearing is present at birth and sound localisation improves. Newborns respond to touch, feel pain, and have smell and taste capacities.
Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct their understanding of the world. Cognitive development occurs through stages, each with a distinct way of thinking (Table 3.2).
| Stage | Approximate Age | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 0-2 years | Infant explores the world through senses and motor interactions (looking, hearing, touching, grasping). Initially lacks object permanence (what's out of sight is out of mind). |
| Preoperational | 2-7 years | Symbolic thought develops (using symbols to represent objects). Object permanence established. Thinking is egocentric (sees world from own perspective) and prone to animism (inanimate objects are alive). Lacks conservation (understanding that quantity remains same despite shape changes). |
| Concrete operational | 7-11 years | Develops logical thought about concrete events. Can perform operations (reversible mental actions). Understands conservation. Can classify objects. Thinking becomes less egocentric. Cannot do abstract thinking. |
| Formal operational | 11-15 years | Thinking becomes abstract, logical, idealistic. Develops hypothetical-deductive reasoning (systematic problem-solving). Can reason about abstract concepts and possibilities. |
During the Sensorimotor stage (first 2 years), infants learn through senses and actions. They initially lack object permanence – the awareness that objects exist even when not perceived, gradually developing this by 8 months. Vocalisation (babbling) starts around 3-6 months, forming the basis of language.
Socio-Emotional Development
Babies are social from birth, showing preference for familiar faces and responding to parents. By 6-8 months, they become more mobile and prefer their mother's company, showing distress when separated or scared, and affection when reunited. This emotional bond is called attachment.
Harlow and Harlow's study (1962) with monkeys showed that 'contact-comfort' (provided by a cloth surrogate mother) was more crucial for attachment than feeding (provided by a wire mother). Human infants also form attachments with responsive caregivers.
According to Erik Erikson, the first year is key for developing trust vs. mistrust. Responsive and sensitive parenting builds trust, fostering an expectation of the world as safe. Insensitive parenting can lead to mistrust and self-doubt. Securely attached infants explore freely and respond positively, while insecurely attached ones show distress upon separation.
Childhood
Generally spans from age 2 to about 11 years, encompassing early (2-7) and middle/late childhood (7-11). Growth rate slows down. The child develops physically, cognitively, socially (world expands beyond parents to family, peers, school), and morally (sense of right/wrong).
Physical Development
Growth continues the cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends. Children slim down as their trunks lengthen. Brain and head grow fastest. Growth in weight and strength increases during middle/late childhood due to skeletal/muscular system growth.
Motor Development
Gross motor skills (large muscle movements like running, jumping) improve significantly in early childhood (Table 3.3). Fine motor skills (finger dexterity, eye-hand coordination) also develop (e.g., holding a pencil, writing). Hand preference (left/right) emerges.
| Age in Years | Gross Motor Skills | Fine Motor Skills |
|---|---|---|
| 3 years | Hopping, jumping, running. | Build blocks, pick objects with forefinger and thumb. |
| 4 years | Climb up and downstairs with one foot on each step. | Fit jigsaw puzzle precisely. |
| 5 years | Run hard, enjoy races. | Hand, arm, and body all coordinate with eye movement. |
Cognitive Development
In early childhood (2-7 years), children are in Piaget's Preoperational stage. They gain symbolic thought (using symbols, drawing to represent objects), expanding their mental world. Key limitations: egocentrism (viewing world only from self's perspective, difficulty understanding others' views), animism (believing inanimate objects are alive), centration (focusing on only one feature of an object/event). Intuitive thought (4-7 years) involves asking 'why' questions. They lack conservation (understanding quantity remains same despite shape changes) and reversibility.
In middle/late childhood (7-11 years), children are in Piaget's Concrete Operational stage. Intuitive thought is replaced by logical thought about concrete objects/events. They develop operations (reversible mental actions) and understand conservation. Thinking is less egocentric, more flexible. They can classify objects and think about alternatives but still struggle with abstract concepts.
Language Development
Growing cognitive abilities facilitate language acquisition, including developing vocabulary and grammar.
Socio-Emotional Development
Important dimensions include the self, gender, and moral development. Early childhood: sense of self develops through socialisation and growing independence. Erikson's stage of initiative vs. guilt – parental response to self-initiated activities shapes whether a child develops a sense of initiative or guilt. Self-understanding is based on physical traits. Middle/late childhood: self-understanding shifts to internal characteristics (smart, proud) and social aspects (club membership). Social comparison emerges ("faster than others"). The social world expands significantly to include peers, influencing development.
Moral Development
Children learn to differentiate right from wrong, develop guilt, empathy, and helpfulness. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through age-related stages. Young children (before age 9) focus on external authority; actions are right/wrong based on punishment/reward. Early adolescence: moral reasoning internalises rules of others (parents, society) to be virtuous and gain approval. Rules are seen as absolute. Later, a personal moral code develops, introducing flexibility and the possibility of not conforming to societal norms if they conflict with personal ethics.
Gender And Sex Roles
Sex refers to biological maleness/femaleness; gender refers to social dimensions of being male/female. Gender roles are expectations for behaviour considered appropriate for each sex. Gender identity (self-labelling as boy/girl) develops early (by age 3). Research shows some sex differences (males more aggressive, perform better on certain physical tasks; females better fine motor coordination, more flexible joints), but it's debated whether these are innate or products of socialisation.
Gender socialisation involves learning gender roles through parents (rewards/punishments, dependence/independence training), peers, and media (perpetuating stereotypes). Once children learn roles, they organise their world by gender. Gender typing occurs when individuals align their behaviour with socio-cultural gender standards. Children actively socialise themselves to conform, expecting gender-appropriate behaviour from themselves and others.
Challenges Of Adolescence
Adolescence is the transition (approx. 11-18 years) from childhood to adulthood, marked by puberty and rapid biological/psychological changes. Experiences vary culturally.
Physical Development
Puberty (sexual maturity) begins adolescence, involving dramatic growth and development of primary (reproduction-related) and secondary (sexual maturity signs like facial hair, voice change, menstruation - menarche) sex characteristics. Growth spurt timing varies (girls typically earlier than boys). Genetics and environment (nutrition, healthcare) influence pubertal timing. Increased awareness of sexuality develops, influenced by biological changes, peers, and society. Lack of adequate knowledge and difficulty discussing sex with parents are common. Forming a sexual identity (orientation, behaviour) is a key task. Adolescents are often preoccupied with their physical appearance and accepting their maturing bodies.
Cognitive Developmental Changes
Piaget's Formal Operational stage (11-15 years) begins. Thinking becomes abstract, logical, and idealistic. Adolescents can reason about possibilities beyond concrete experience. They develop hypothetical-deductive reasoning (systematic problem-solving). Moral reasoning becomes more flexible, questioning absolute rules and developing a personal moral code.
Adolescent egocentrism includes: Imaginary audience (belief others are as preoccupied with them as they are with self, leading to extreme self-consciousness); Personal fable (sense of uniqueness, belief no one understands them, weaving fantasy stories). These are common aspects of adolescent thought.
Forming An Identity
A primary task is the search for identity – defining self, values, beliefs, commitments. Erikson's stage is identity vs. identity confusion. Adolescents strive to establish an identity separate from parents, developing unique beliefs. This can involve conflict (with parents, internally). Success leads to a new sense of self; failure leads to confusion, potentially isolation or losing identity in the crowd. Rapid shifts between self-confidence and insecurity are typical. Seeking identity involves finding continuity, taking responsibility, and clarifying who one is.
Vocational Commitment
Choosing an occupation requires thinking about the future and setting realistic goals. Cultural factors influence freedom in career choice. Career counselling helps in appraising students and guiding decisions.
Some Major Concerns
Adolescence can be a vulnerable period marked by conflicts, uncertainty, loneliness, and pressure. Conforming to peer pressure can lead to risky behaviours (smoking, drugs, alcohol, breaking rules) often without considering long-term effects. Vulnerability is linked to impulsivity, aggression, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and low achievement expectations.
Delinquency
Refers to a range of behaviours from socially unacceptable acts to legal offences (truancy, stealing, vandalism). Associated with negative self-identity, low trust, low achievement, low parental support, inappropriate discipline, family discord. Communities with poverty and alienation can contribute. Most delinquent adolescents do not remain so; positive peer influence, social responsibility, self-worth development, role models, and positive attitudes help reduce delinquency.
Substance Abuse
Adolescence is vulnerable to smoking, alcohol, and drug abuse as coping mechanisms, interfering with coping skills and decision-making. Reasons include peer pressure, desire to act adult, escape pressure. Nicotine is addictive. Vulnerability is linked to impulsivity, anxiety, low self-esteem. Physiological dependency (addiction) can severely jeopardise life. Positive relationships can prevent abuse. Programs use education (street theatre) to encourage saying no.
Eating Disorders
Adolescents' obsession with self and peer comparisons can lead to body image issues. Anorexia nervosa is starvation driven by relentless pursuit of thinness (influenced by media). Bulimia is binge-eating followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives). Primarily female disorders, more common in urban areas.
Adulthood And Old Age
This encompasses adulthood and the later years of life.
Adulthood
Defined as responsible, mature, self-supporting, integrated into society. Timing of assuming adult roles varies due to social context. Life events (marriage, job, children) have different timings across cultures, but similar patterns within a culture.
Career And Work
Major themes in twenties/thirties are earning, choosing occupation, developing career. Entering work is challenging (adjustments, competence, competition, expectations). Developing/evaluating career becomes important.
Marriage, Parenthood, And Family
Marriage requires adjustment to partner's traits and shared responsibilities (especially if both work). Becoming a parent is a stressful transition despite love, influenced by family size, social support, marital happiness. Single parenting and dual-earner families have specific stressors (childcare, workload). Parenting offers unique growth/satisfaction, guiding the next generation.
Physical Changes
Middle age involves maturational changes (decline in vision, glare sensitivity, hearing loss, appearance changes like wrinkles, grey hair, weight gain).
Cognitive Abilities
Some cognitive abilities decline with age (more in long-term memory than short-term). Memory may decline, but wisdom may improve. Individual differences exist.
Old Age
Defining "old age" is shifting upward as people live longer and retirement age changes. Challenges include retirement, widowhood, illness, death. The image of old age is changing; many elderly are active, valued in society. Experience depends on socio-economic factors, healthcare, societal attitude, support systems. Work, family, then health are key concerns across adulthood/old age. Successful ageing involves effectiveness at work, healthy relationships, health, cognitive fitness.
Retirement is significant; some see it negatively (loss of satisfaction/self-esteem), others positively (more time for interests). Openness to new experiences aids adjustment.
Adjusting to family changes and new roles (grandparenting) is needed. Dependence on children (financial, emotional) can arise, potentially causing hopelessness/depression. Indian culture often supports elder dependence on children for care. Providing security, belonging, and care is crucial for the elderly.
Death is more likely in late adulthood but can occur anytime. Deaths of young people are seen as tragic. Causes differ by age (accidents vs. chronic disease). Death of a spouse is a difficult loss (grief, loneliness, health risks); support helps coping. Widowhood is more common for women.
Cultural views on death vary. Understanding these influences aids in comprehending individual development across the lifespan.
Key Terms
Adolescence, Animism, Attachment, Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete operational stage, Deductive thought, Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender, Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche, Motor development, Object permanence, Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period, Preoperational stage, Primary sex characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty, Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self, Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens
Summary
Development involves lifelong changes from conception to death, influenced by heredity, environment, and context, encompassing biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes.
Key developmental stages include prenatal (influenced by maternal health, teratogens), infancy (rapid brain growth, reflexes, motor skills following cephalocaudal/proximodistal trends, sensory development, Piaget's sensorimotor stage - object permanence, attachment formation), childhood (slower growth, gross/fine motor skills refinement, Piaget's preoperational/concrete operational stages - symbolic thought, egocentrism, animism, conservation, logical thinking; socio-emotional development - self-understanding, peer relations, moral development - Kohlberg's stages, gender roles), adolescence (puberty, physical growth spurt, sexual maturity, Piaget's formal operational stage - abstract/logical thought, egocentrism - imaginary audience/personal fable, identity formation, vocational choices, challenges - delinquency, substance abuse, eating disorders), adulthood (career, marriage, parenthood, physical/cognitive changes), and old age (retirement, widowhood, illness, loss, adjustment, dependency, death).
Development is plastic, multi-directional, and influenced by historical/socio-cultural contexts (Bronfenbrenner, Sinha). Understanding individuals requires considering their experiences within these contexts.
Growth is distinct from development; maturation is genetic unfolding; evolution is species-level change.