Chapter 4 The Age of Industrialisation

Overview

This chapter traces the history of industrialisation, starting with pre-industrial production methods and the rise of factories. It highlights the slow pace of technological adoption and the complex lives of industrial workers. The chapter then shifts focus to India, examining how colonial rule impacted its traditional industries, particularly textiles, and led to the decline of old ports like Surat while new ones like Bombay and Calcutta emerged. It discusses the role of Indian entrepreneurs and the sourcing of labor. The chapter also explains how factories came up, the dominance of small-scale industries, the creation of markets through advertisements and symbols, and the peculiar aspects of industrial growth in India. Finally, it concludes by reflecting on the slow but steady transformation and the coexistence of traditional and modern industries.

Before The Industrial Revolution

Even before factories became prominent, large-scale industrial production for international markets existed, known as proto-industrialisation. Merchants supplied raw materials to rural peasants and artisans, who produced goods in their homes. This system, controlled by merchants, operated outside powerful urban guilds that regulated trade and production. The enclosure of common lands and dwindling agricultural incomes pushed many rural families to supplement their earnings through this proto-industrial work.

The Coming Up Of The Factory

The development of new inventions, like the Spinning Jenny and improved steam engines, revolutionized production processes, increasing efficiency and output. Factories emerged as centralized places where costly machines could be housed, allowing for better supervision, quality control, and regulation of labor, a contrast to the dispersed household production.

The Pace Of Industrial Change

Industrialisation was not always rapid or solely factory-based. Cotton and metal industries were dynamic in Britain's first phase. However, traditional industries continued to exist, and technological adoption was slow due to high costs and risks. Many workers remained craftspeople rather than factory laborers, and even new technologies like the steam engine took time to be widely accepted.

Hand Labour And Steam Power

In 19th-century Britain, an abundance of labor meant low wages, making industrialists cautious about investing in expensive machinery that could displace workers. Many industries experienced seasonal demand, preferring to hire hand labor for short periods. This created precarious employment conditions, with workers facing long hours, low pay, and the constant threat of unemployment, leading to hostility towards new technologies.

Life Of The Workers

Job seekers from rural areas moved to cities, often finding work through existing social networks. However, securing employment was difficult, with many waiting for weeks or sleeping rough. Seasonal work led to periods of unemployment. While wages saw some increase, they often didn't keep pace with the rising cost of living. Workers feared new technologies that threatened their jobs, leading to protests, such as the attack on the Spinning Jenny.

Industrialisation In The Colonies

Colonialism significantly shaped industrialisation in countries like India. The demand for raw materials (cotton, jute) and markets for manufactured goods (textiles) drove colonial economic policies.

The Age Of Indian Textiles

Before the industrial age, India was a major producer and exporter of fine textiles. However, with the growth of British industries and the East India Company's increasing political power, Indian textile exports declined. The company established control over weavers, eliminated competition, and imposed a system of advances that tied weavers to them, often at low prices and with harsh penalties for delays.

Why Did Cotton Weavers Face Problems?

Indian weavers faced a dual crisis: their export markets collapsed due to British policies, and their domestic market was flooded with cheaper, machine-made Manchester goods. Increased competition and lack of access to good quality raw cotton (as Britain prioritized its own needs) further worsened their situation.

Manchester Comes To India

The growth of the British textile industry led to Manchester goods flooding Indian markets, making it difficult for Indian weavers to compete. While some larger Indian factories emerged, small-scale production remained dominant, often adapting new technologies cautiously.

Factories Come Up

The first factories in England appeared in the 1730s, but their numbers grew significantly in the late 18th century, marked by the boom in cotton and iron industries. The pace of industrial change was gradual, with new technologies like the steam engine taking time to be widely adopted. The growth of industries also led to the expansion of cities and the need for infrastructure like railways, further driving industrial demand.

The Early Entrepreneurs

Early industrialists in India often came from trading backgrounds, accumulating capital through trade (e.g., China trade by Dwarkanath Tagore, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and J.N. Tata) and then investing in industries. They faced challenges like colonial restrictions but gradually established dominance, often financed by Indian capital but managed by European agencies.

Where Did The Workers Come From?

Workers for factories were primarily drawn from rural areas, often peasants and artisans displaced by land reforms or seeking better employment. They maintained links with their villages, moving between rural and urban areas for agricultural seasons and work. Job placement often relied on networks, with jobbers playing a key role in recruitment, sometimes exploiting workers by demanding bribes.

Small-Scale Industries Predominate

Despite the growth of factory industries, small-scale and household production remained dominant in India throughout the 20th century. Traditional craftspeople often adopted new technologies incrementally if they improved productivity without significantly increasing costs. Handloom production, for example, expanded by adopting the fly shuttle, improving efficiency.

Market For Goods

Industrial growth required creating demand for mass-produced goods. Advertisements played a crucial role in shaping consumer preferences, popularizing products by associating them with desirable qualities, national pride (Swadeshi movement), or prestigious figures and symbols.

Conclusion

Industrialisation brought significant technological advancements and changes to societies, but it coexisted with traditional industries and hand labor. The process was complex, often slow, and varied across regions and sectors. While industries boosted economies, they also led to environmental degradation and impacted workers' lives, highlighting the multifaceted nature of industrial development.