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Chapter 11. Rebels And The Raj The Revolt Of 1857 And Its Representations
On the evening of May 10, 1857, a major uprising began in Meerut when sepoys (Indian soldiers in the British East India Company's army) mutinied. The mutiny quickly spread from the infantry to the cavalry and then engulfed the city, with ordinary townspeople and villagers joining the rebels.
Rebels seized arms and ammunition, attacked and looted the property of white people (bungalows, government buildings like record offices, jails, treasuries, post offices). The telegraph line to Delhi was cut.
A group of sepoys rode to Delhi, arriving at the Red Fort gates on May 11 morning. They informed the elderly Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, that they had rebelled due to the introduction of new rifle cartridges rumored to be greased with the fat of cows and pigs, which offended both Hindu and Muslim religious sentiments.
Other sepoys and ordinary citizens joined the rebellion in Delhi. Europeans were killed, and the property of the rich was looted. Delhi came under rebel control. Some sepoys entered the Red Fort disrespecting court etiquette, demanding the emperor's blessing. Surrounded by rebels, Bahadur Shah complied, lending a form of legitimacy to the revolt under his name.
The revolt quickly spread through North India from May 12-13 as news of Delhi's fall and Bahadur Shah's support circulated. Cantonments (military stations) across the Gangetic valley and west of Delhi rose in mutiny.
Pattern Of The Rebellion
The sequence of events in the rebellion shows a similar pattern across different cantonments, suggesting coordination and communication.
Mutiny: A collective disobedience within the armed forces.
Revolt/Rebellion: An uprising against established authority. In 1857, 'mutiny' refers to the sepoy uprising, 'revolt/rebellion' to the broader civilian uprising (peasants, zamindars, etc.).
How The Mutinies Began
Sepoys typically initiated mutinies with a signal (evening gun fire, bugle call). They first seized the armory (bell of arms) and plundered the treasury. Government buildings were then targeted and burnt, along with records. Anyone or anything associated with the British became a target (firangis). Proclamations urged Hindus and Muslims to unite against the British.
As civilians joined, targets broadened to include moneylenders and the rich in major towns, seen as oppressors and British allies. Their houses were looted and destroyed. The sepoy mutiny quickly transformed into a wider rebellion, marked by general defiance of authority.
The British were initially overwhelmed, with their rule collapsing rapidly in affected areas.
Source 1: Reports from the Delhi Urdu Akhbar (June 14, 1857) on conditions in Delhi during the revolt, focusing on shortages of vegetables and water, and impact on different social classes.
Reports scarcity/poor quality of vegetables (pumpkin, brinjal, potatoes, yam). Some produce from city gardens available but only for select few; poor/middle class cannot access. Water carriers stopped filling water; poor/middle class carrying water in pails for household tasks (cooking). Halalkhors (righteous/scavengers) became haramkhors (corrupt/idle). Many mohallas (localities) cannot earn. Situation threatens decay, death, disease, epidemic.
Answer:
The reports describe the breakdown of essential services and supply chains in Delhi due to the revolt. Shortages of basic goods (vegetables) and necessities (water) highlight the disruption of normal life. The mention of different social classes (poor, middle class, Shurfas/gentility, halalkhors/scavengers, mohallas) and their specific struggles (carrying water, inability to earn) indicates that the revolt affected all segments of urban society, though perhaps with differing impacts depending on their economic status and occupation. The newspaper views the actions that led to these shortages (water-carriers stopping work, disruption of markets) negatively, focusing on the resulting hardship ("damage to the people," "decay, death and disease," "epidemic") and implicitly linking them to the chaos caused by the rebellion ("normal life affected"). While not directly condemning the rebels, the report highlights the negative consequences of the revolt's disruptions on the civilian population and urban environment.
Lines Of Communication
The similarity in the revolt's pattern across different locations suggests planning and communication between cantonments. Sepoys used emissaries and messages to coordinate actions (e.g., 7th Awadh Irregular Cavalry writing to 48th Native Infantry).
Source 2: Conversation between François Sisten (native Christian police inspector in Sitapur, in Indian clothes, cross-legged) and a Muslim tahsildar from Bijnor, about news from Awadh and "the work".
Sisten (playing safe) replies if they have work in Awadh, highness will know. Tahsildar says they will succeed this time, business direction in able hands. Tahsildar later identified as principal rebel leader of Bijnor.
Answer:
This conversation suggests that plans for the rebellion were being communicated and discussed discreetly among individuals sympathetic to the cause, using veiled language ("the work," "succeed this time," "direction of the business is in able hands") to avoid detection by authorities. The tahsildar regarded Sisten as a potential rebel likely because Sisten was dressed in Indian clothes and was from Awadh, a region known for discontent against British rule. The tahsildar's direct question about "news from Awadh" and "How does the work progress, brother?" implies he assumed Sisten might be involved or aware of the rebellion's progress in that region, suggesting that regional affiliation and perceived identity (indicated by dress and origin) could serve as cues for identifying potential allies or participants in the revolt. Sisten's cautious reply shows the atmosphere of suspicion and the need for caution in communicating potentially treasonous information.
While direct evidence of planners is scarce, incidents suggest collective decision-making. Captain Hearsey of Awadh Military Police was protected by his subordinates, but other regiments demanded his surrender. A panchayat (assembly of native officers) was formed to settle the dispute, indicating decisions were made collectively. Charles Ball noted nightly panchayats in Kanpur sepoy lines. Sepoys, sharing living spaces and often caste/origin, likely decided their actions together, making them the makers of their rebellion.
Leaders And Followers
Rebels sought leadership from those who had held authority before British rule. Meerut sepoys appealed to Bahadur Shah in Delhi to lead. He reluctantly accepted, lending legitimacy.
Elsewhere, popular pressure compelled individuals to lead: Nana Sahib (successor to Peshwa Baji Rao II) in Kanpur, Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jhansi, Kunwar Singh (zamindar) in Arrah (Bihar), Birjis Qadr (son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah) in Lucknow (symbolizing resistance to Awadh annexation).
Leaders weren't always from royalty/nobility. Ordinary men/women and religious figures also carried the message. A fakir on an elephant in Meerut, religious leaders preaching jihad against British in Lucknow, self-styled prophets, local leaders (Shah Mal mobilising villagers, Gonoo leading Kol tribals) emerged, urging revolt.
Two rebels of 1857:
- Shah Mal: Jat cultivator leader from Barout (UP). Mobilised headmen/cultivators of 84 villages (chaurasee des) against oppressive revenue, loss of land to outsiders. Revolt against British turned against local oppressors (moneylenders/traders). Plundered houses, regained lost lands. Attacked government buildings, destroyed infrastructure (bridge, roads) to hinder British and symbolize rejection. Sent supplies to Delhi sepoys. Operated a "hall of justice," dispensing judgments. Killed in July 1857.
- Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: Maulvi educated in Hyderabad, preached jihad against British. Traveled with followers (Danka Shah - maulvi with drum). Seen as inspired prophet. Jailed in Faizabad (1857). Released, elected leader by mutinous Native Infantry. Fought British (Battle of Chinhat). Known for courage/power; belief he was invincible/had magical powers bolstered authority.
Rumours And Prophecies
Rumours and prophecies fueled the revolt. The rumor about new rifle cartridges greased with cow/pig fat (offensive to Hindus/Muslims) spread rapidly among sepoys. British denials failed. Origin possibly from a low-caste khalasi's remark to a Brahmin sepoy in Dum Dum (Jan 1857).
Other rumors: British government planning to destroy caste/religion (mixing bone dust in flour); British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity. Panic spread; sepoys/people refused atta, feared conversion. Prophecy: British rule ends on Battle of Plassey centenary (June 23, 1857).
Chapattis distributed mysteriously from village to village across North India, read as omen of upheaval; meaning unclear but symbolic.
Why Did People Believe In The Rumours?
Rumors gain power when they resonate with people's fears, suspicions, faiths. Belief in 1857 rumors understood in context of British policies from late 1820s:
- "Reforming" Indian society through Western education, ideas, institutions. English-medium schools/colleges, laws against sati (1829), permitting widow remarriage (Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act 1856).
- Annexation of kingdoms (Awadh, Jhansi, Satara) on various pretexts (misgovernment, refusal to recognize adoption). Introduction of British administration, laws, land settlements, revenue collection methods.
Cumulative impact: people felt cherished customs/institutions (kings, religion, landholding, revenue) destroyed, replaced by impersonal, alien, oppressive system. Christian missionaries' activities aggravated fears of forced conversion. Uncertainty fueled rapid rumor spread.
Awadh In Revolt
Awadh (present-day UP) was a major center of the revolt. Described as "a cherry" by Dalhousie, it was annexed in 1856 on grounds of misgovernment, completing decades of annexation.
“A Cherry That Will Drop Into Our Mouth One Day”
Annexation occurred in stages. Subsidiary Alliance imposed in 1801: Nawab disbanded army, accepted British troops/Resident, dependent on British for order, lost control over chiefs/taluqdars. British interest grew due to fertile soil (indigo, cotton), ideal location for principal market. Annexation completed territorial expansion started in Bengal.
Subsidiary Alliance: System (Wellesley, 1798). Ally: British protection from threats, British contingent stationed in ally's territory, ally provides resources for contingent, ally needs British permission for agreements/war with others.
Resident: Governor General's representative living in a non-directly ruled state.
“The Life Was Gone Out Of The Body”
Dalhousie's annexations caused widespread disaffection, strongest in Awadh. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah dethroned, exiled (Calcutta) for misgovernment. British wrongly assumed he was unpopular. He was loved; many mourned his exile, sang songs of lament. Grief aggravated by material losses: court dissolution meant loss of livelihood for musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, staff, officials. Emotional upheaval and material loss combined against British rule.
Source 3: Song mourning the departure of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah from Awadh.
Song mourns Nawab's departure: Noble and peasant wept together, all world wept and wailed. "Alas! The chief has bidden adieu to his country and gone abroad." Also mentioned: "the honourable English came and took the country’’ (Angrez Bahadur ain, mulk lai linho).
Answer:
People mourned the departure of Wajid Ali Shah intensely because he was a widely loved ruler who represented their traditional way of life, culture, and political authority. His exile symbolized the end of their familiar world and the forceful imposition of alien British rule ("the honourable English came and took the country"). The song shows that grief cut across social lines ("Noble and peasant all wept together"), indicating widespread attachment to the Nawab and the indigenous rule he represented. His removal was seen as a deep loss, akin to the life leaving the body of the town (as described by other observers). The mourning reflects not just personal affection but also resistance to the foreign takeover and the destruction of their existing socio-political order.
Firangi Raj And The End Of A World
Chain of grievances linked prince, taluqdar, peasant, sepoy. All saw British rule (firangi raj) as end of their world, breakdown of valued aspects (social order, landholding, customs). Revolt in Awadh became expression of popular resistance to alien order.
Annexation dispossessed taluqdars (controlled land/power for generations). British disarmed them, destroyed forts, undermined authority. Summary Settlement (1856): removed taluqdars (seen as interlopers), assumed settling land with actual owners (peasants) would reduce exploitation/increase revenue. Taluqdars' held villages fell from 67% to 38%. Hardest hit in southern Awadh. Revenue increased (30-70%), burden on peasants didn't decline. Neither taluqdars nor peasants happy with annexation.
Dispossession of taluqdars broke down social order. Peasant-taluqdar ties disrupted. Taluqdars oppressive but also provided consideration/support (loans during hardship/festivities). Under British, peasants faced overassessment/inflexible collection, no guarantee of relief. Taluqdars and their peasants fought together in Awadh resistance. Many loyal to Nawab, joined Begum Hazrat Mahal, fought British.
Source 4: Hanwant Singh (Raja of Kalakankar, near Rae Bareli, Awadh) speaking to British officer he sheltered during mutiny.
Hanwant Singh says: Sahib, your countrymen drove out our King. Sent officers to examine titles, took my lands from time immemorial at one blow. I submitted. Misfortune fell on you. People of land rose against you. You came to me (despoiled). I saved you. But now I march with retainers to Lucknow to drive you from country.
Answer:
This excerpt reveals the bitter attitude of the taluqdars like Hanwant Singh towards the British. He sees them as invaders who illegally took over his land, which had been in his family for generations. His initial submission was forced, but the general uprising provided an opportunity for retribution and reclaiming what was lost. By "the people of the land," Hanwant Singh means the indigenous population of Awadh and surrounding areas – peasants, other landholders, sepoys, etc. – who rose up against the British. The reason Hanwant Singh gives for the anger of the people is the British policies of dispossession and disregarding traditional land rights, specifically referencing the examination of titles and the forceful seizure of lands that had been held "from time immemorial." This resonates with the grievances caused by the Summary Settlement and the disruption of the existing landholding system.
Grievances carried into sepoy lines; vast majority from Awadh villages, often Brahmins/"upper" castes ("nursery of the Bengal Army"). Sepoys complained of low pay, leave difficulty. Pre-1857, officer-sepoy relations changed: 1820s officers maintained friendly relations, understood customs, fluent in Hindustani. 1840s, officers sense of superiority, racial inferiority treatment, abuse, violence. Trust replaced by suspicion. Greased cartridges episode exemplified this. Close links between sepoys and North Indian rural world transmitted fears/grievances (cartridges, leave, abuse). This link crucial; sepoys joined swiftly by villagers, peasants poured into towns, joined rebellion.
What The Rebels Wanted
British accounts, as victors, portray rebels negatively. Rebels' voices are scarce (few proclamations/notifications, letters, but most were illiterate sepoys/ordinary people). Reconstructing rebels' perspective heavily depends on British sources (letters, diaries, reports), which reveal official mindset, fears, perceptions, but little about rebels' desires.
The Vision Of Unity
Rebel proclamations (1857) appealed to all sections (caste/creed), highlighting shared losses/gains for Hindus/Muslims. Glorified pre-British past, coexistence under Mughals. Proclamation under Bahadur Shah appealed under standards of Muhammad/Mahavir. Religious divisions minimal despite British attempts to incite (e.g., in Bareilly, British spent Rs 50,000 to incite Hindus vs Muslims, failed).
Source 5: Azamgarh Proclamation, August 25, 1857. Declares ruin of Hindostan people (Hindu/Muslim) under tyrannical English. Bounden duty of wealthy/connected to Muslim royal families/pastors/masters to risk lives/property. Hindu/Muslim Chiefs left homes for religion preservation, join Indian crusade, expect succors from West. Ishtahar informs public. Those without means get daily subsistence from him. Ancient works, miracle workers, astrologers, pundits agree English lose footing. Incumbent on all to side with him, earn consideration of Badshahi/imperial government, attain ends. Otherwise repent. Sections on grievances: Zemindars (exorbitant Jumas, auction disgrace, summoned to court for suits by low status, litigation cost/disgrace, subscription taxes. Promise light Jumas, dignity/honor safe, absolute rule in own zemindary under Badshahi). Merchants (British monopoly - indigo, cloth, shipping articles, leaving trifles. Profits taxed - postages, tolls, subscriptions. Liable to imprisonment/disgrace by worthless man. Promise under Badshahi: all trade open to native merchants. Duty to join war w/men/money). Public Servants (low respect/pay, no influence, high posts exclusively English. Duty to be alive to religion/interest, abjure loyalty, side w/Badshahi, get high salaries/posts). Artisans (Europeans w/English articles ruined native artisans/weavers/etc., engrossed occupations, reduced to beggary. Under Badshahi: native artisans exclusively employed by kings/rajahs/rich, ensuring prosperity. Duty to renounce English service). Pundits/Fakirs/Learned (guardians of Hindu/Mohammadan religions, Europeans enemies. War for religion. Bound to join, share holy war).
Answer:
Issues against British rule highlighted: tyranny and oppression ruining people (Hindu/Muslim); exorbitant revenue demands (Jumas) ruining zamindars, auctioning estates, summoning respectable zamindars to court for suits by low status people, high litigation costs/disgrace, subscription taxes on coffers; trade monopoly by British leaving little to natives, taxing traders' profits, arbitrary imprisonment/disgrace for merchants; low respect, pay, influence for native public servants (civil/military), high posts exclusively English; ruin of native artisans due to introduction of English articles, engrossing occupations, reducing to beggary; Europeans being enemies of both Hindu/Mohammadan religions, war for religion. The language is strong and appeals to collective grievances ("ruined under tyranny/oppression"), shared identity (Hindostan people, Hindu/Mohammedans), religious duty ("bounden duty," "preservation of their religion," "reigning Indian crusade," "holy war"), material benefits (light Jumas, dignity/honor safe, absolute rule for zamindars, trade open, high salaries/posts for servants, exclusive employment/prosperity for artisans, daily subsistence for poor fighters), historical legitimacy (Badshahi/imperial government), and seeking justice/reclaiming rights. It appeals to unity across class/religious lines (Hindu/Muslim, wealthy/poor, various occupations) against a common enemy (infidel/treacherous English) who is destroying their religion, livelihood, and social order.
Against The Symbols Of Oppression
Proclamations rejected British rule ("firangi raj"), condemning annexations/broken treaties (British cannot be trusted). Attacked land revenue settlements (dispossessing big/small landholders) and foreign commerce (ruining artisans/weavers). Demanded restoring familiar, cherished way of life. Expressed fear of British destroying caste/religions, converting to Christianity. Urged fighting for livelihood, faith, honor, identity, for "greater public good."
Rebellion widened into attack on British allies/local oppressors (moneylenders, rich). Rebels humiliated city elites, burnt account books, ransacked moneylenders' houses in villages. Attempt to overturn hierarchies, rebel against all oppressors. Glimpse of alternative, potentially more egalitarian society, not fully articulated in proclamations aiming for unity.
The Search For Alternative Power
After British collapse in places (Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur), rebels tried establishing authority/administration, aiming to restore pre-British 18th-century world (Mughal court culture). Appointed posts, arranged revenue collection/troop payment, stopped loot, planned battles. Laid down army chains of command, harking back to 18th-century Mughal world as symbol of what was lost. Administrative structures mainly for war demands, short-lived except Awadh (resistance longest), where counter-attack plans/hierarchies in place late 1857/early 1858.
Repression
British faced difficulty suppressing rebellion (clear from all accounts). Passed laws (May/June 1857) to quell insurgency. Martial law in North India; military officers/Britons given power to try/punish suspected rebels. Ordinary law suspended; rebellion punishment: death.
British suppressed revolt with military force and reinforcements. Two-pronged attack: from Calcutta into North India, from Punjab (largely peaceful) to reconquer Delhi. Delhi capture difficult (rebels from all over defended capital), took until late September.
Gangetic plain reconquest slow, village by village; countryside/people hostile. British realized widespread popular support for uprising. Awadh: intense/long resistance (Forsyth est. 3/4 adult males in rebellion). Brought under control March 1858 after fighting.
British used vast military power AND political means: broke unity by promising return of estates to big landholders in areas of united resistance (UP). Rebel landholders dispossessed, loyal rewarded. Many rebel landholders died fighting or escaped to Nepal.
Source 7: Officer report from rural Awadh on "Oude people" pressing on communication line, being villagers, nearly intangible to Europeans, melting away and collecting again, large number with guns.
Answer:
According to this account, the problems faced by the British in dealing with these villagers were their mobility and elusive tactics. The villagers were described as "nearly intangible to Europeans," meaning they were difficult to capture or confront directly. They would "melt away" (disperse, disappear into the countryside) when British forces approached and then "collect again" (regroup) afterwards. This made it hard for the British army, accustomed to conventional warfare, to engage and defeat them decisively. The villagers' intimate knowledge of the local terrain and their ability to blend into the population allowed them to use guerrilla tactics effectively against the British forces pressing down the line of communication from the North, posing a persistent challenge despite not being a formal army.
Images Of The Revolt
Information on the revolt heavily comes from British accounts (officials, military, newspapers, magazines) which reflect their perspective. Rebel voices are limited (proclamations, notifications, few letters). Pictorial images by British and Indians (paintings, drawings, posters, cartoons, prints) are important records.
Celebrating The Saviours
British pictures depicted heroes saving English and repressing rebels (e.g., "Relief of Lucknow" by Barker, 1859). Celebrated moments of British triumph, survival, heroic resistance (siege of Lucknow). Painting centers on heroes (Campbell, Outram, Havelock), uses lighting/composition to emphasize their triumph, shows suffering (dead/injured) and re-established British power (horses). Reassuring to British public, created sense of victory.
English Women And The Honour Of Britain
Newspaper reports/visuals fueled anger/demands for revenge, emphasizing violence against women/children. British government urged to protect honor/safety. Artists shaped these sentiments.
"In Memoriam" (Paton, 1859): British women/children huddled, helpless, waiting for dishonor/violence/death (implied). Suggests violence without explicit gore, provokes anger/fury, portrays rebels as brutal (invisible). British rescue forces in background as saviours.
Other images: women as heroic defenders (Miss Wheeler defending herself in Kanpur, single-handedly killing rebels). Rebels demonized (four males attacking one woman). Woman's struggle seen as defending Christianity (Bible on floor).
Vengeance And Retribution
Anger/shock/demands for revenge in Britain grew. Visuals/news sanctioned brutal repression, violent reprisal as necessary/just. Justice demanded ruthless response to challenge to British honor/power. British needed to demonstrate invincibility.
Allegorical figure of justice (sword, shield, aggressive posture, rage) trampling sepoys, with cowering Indian women/children (Fig 11.13). Numerous pictures/cartoons sanctioned brutal repression/reprisal.
Fig. 11.14 description: Cartoon from Punch (1857) titled "The British Lion’s Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger". Lion (British) attacking tiger (Bengal/rebels). Woman/child depicted.
Answer:
The picture projects the idea of decisive and powerful British retaliation against the Indian rebels. The image of the British Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger uses animal symbolism to represent the conflict: the British (Lion) are depicted as powerful, majestic, and justified in their aggressive response, while the rebels (Tiger) are portrayed as fierce but ultimately defeated and subject to the Lion's retribution. This suggests that the British saw themselves as the superior force, righteously punishing a dangerous foe. The figures of the woman and the child likely depict vulnerable British civilians who were seen as victims of the rebels' violence (as emphasized in other images like "In Memoriam"). Their presence serves to justify the brutal "vengeance" being enacted by the British Lion, portraying the British response as necessary protection and retribution for the suffering inflicted upon innocent women and children by the "Bengal Tiger" (the rebels).
The Performance Of Terror
Urge for vengeance/retribution seen in brutal execution methods (blown from guns, hanged). Images widely circulated. Executions in Peshawar (Fig 11.15, 11.16) depicted as theatrical performances of brutal power to instill fear. Public punishment in open spaces, not discreetly, for maximum impact on viewers, especially fellow sepoys.
No Time For Clemency
Amidst calls for vengeance, pleas for moderation ridiculed. Governor General Canning (dubbed "Clemency Canning") mocked for suggesting leniency/mercy to win back sepoys' loyalty. Cartoon in Punch (Fig 11.17) shows Canning protecting a sepoy (still armed, blood dripping), suggesting misplaced mercy towards a dangerous rebel. Imagery of sepoy as dangerous recurs in British pictures.
Nationalist Imageries
20th-century nationalist movement drew inspiration from 1857. Celebrated as First War of Independence, uniting Indians against imperial rule. Art/literature/history writing kept memory alive. Leaders (Rani of Jhansi) presented as heroes fighting for freedom, rousing people against oppression. Rani Lakshmi Bai depicted as masculine warrior, symbol of resistance (Fig 11.18).
Images reflected/shaped emotions. British images fueled brutal repression sanction. Nationalist imageries shaped nationalist imagination.
TIMELINE
Timeline: Some Major Mughal Chronicles and Memoirs
Lists key Mughal historical texts and their approximate composition/publication dates.
Timeline: Landmarks in the History of the Mughal Empire
Lists major political events and reigns from Babur to Bahadur Shah II.
ANSWER IN 100-150 WORDS
Questions requiring short essay answers on aspects of the 1857 revolt, drawing upon evidence from the chapter.
Write a short essay (250-300 words) on the following:
Questions requiring more detailed essay answers on specific themes, using evidence from the chapter.
Map work
Map-based activity related to the 1857 revolt.
Projects (choose one)
Suggestions for independent projects involving research or analyzing representations of the revolt.
If you would like to know more, read:
Suggestions for further reading on the topic.
For more information, you could visit:
Suggestions for online resources.
Credits for Illustrations
List of sources for the images used in the chapter.