Chapter 3. Kinship, Caste And Class Early Societies (C. 600 Bce-600 Ce)

Between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE, significant changes in economic and political life (as discussed in Chapter 2) also profoundly influenced societies. For instance, expanding agriculture into forested areas altered the lives of forest dwellers, craft specialization led to distinct social groups, and unequal wealth distribution sharpened social differences.

Historians use textual traditions to understand these social processes. Some texts prescribe social norms, while others describe (and sometimes comment on) social situations and practices. Inscriptions also offer glimpses of individuals within society.

When studying these sources, historians must consider the perspective from which each text was written (who composed it, for whom), the language used, and how the text spread. Careful analysis of texts allows for the reconstruction of attitudes and practices that shaped social histories.

The Mahabharata, a vast epic composed over about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards), is a particularly rich source for understanding early Indian societies. Its central story revolves around a conflict between two cousin groups, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The epic also includes sections prescribing norms for various social groups.

Examining how characters adhere to or deviate from these norms provides insights into the social dynamics of the time.

The Critical Edition Of The Mahabharata

Recognizing the importance of the Mahabharata as a source, a monumental scholarly project led by V.S. Sukthankar began in 1919 to prepare a critical edition of the epic.

The task involved collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of the Mahabharata from across the subcontinent, written in various regional scripts.

A team of scholars systematically compared verses from different manuscripts. Their goal was to identify the verses that were common to most versions, representing a core text.

The project took 47 years to complete and resulted in the publication of the epic in several volumes, totaling over 13,000 pages.

The critical edition revealed two key findings:

• There was a significant core of common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story found throughout the subcontinent, indicating a shared narrative tradition.
• Alongside this common core, there were also enormous regional variations in how the text was transmitted and interpreted over centuries.

These regional variations were meticulously documented in footnotes and appendices, comprising over half the pages of the critical edition. These variations highlight the dynamic process of shaping early social histories through interactions, conflicts, and consensus between dominant traditions and local ideas and practices.

Historians initially studied Sanskrit texts (often composed by Brahmanas) at face value, assuming their prescriptions were universally practiced. Later studies of texts in Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil revealed that while Brahmanical norms were influential, they were also questioned and sometimes rejected in practice.

Kinship And Marriage Many Rules And Varied Practices

Family and kinship are fundamental aspects of society. Families vary in size and structure, often sharing resources, living, working, and performing rituals together. Families are part of larger networks of relatives or kinfolk, defined by kinship ties (sometimes based on blood, but defined differently in different societies).

For historians studying early societies, information about elite families (like ruling lineages) is relatively accessible from available sources, but reconstructing the familial relationships of ordinary people is much more difficult.

Historians also analyze attitudes towards family and kinship, as these ideas likely shaped people's actions and vice versa.

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Sanskrit texts use specific terms for family and kin: kula for families, jnati for larger kin networks, and vamsha for lineage.

Finding Out About Families

The Mahabharata's central story is about a conflict within a single ruling family (the Kurus) between two cousin groups (Kauravas and Pandavas) over control of land and power. This story can be seen as illustrating a point where kinship relations became central to a major conflict.

The Ideal Of Patriliny

The conflict in the Mahabharata culminates in a battle won by the Pandavas, after which patrilineal succession is emphasized and proclaimed. Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson, and so on. This concept was reinforced by the epic's central narrative, highlighting its importance in determining who would inherit resources and power.

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Under patriliny, sons had the right to inherit their father's resources, including the throne in ruling families, after the father's death. Most ruling dynasties from c. sixth century BCE onwards claimed to follow this system.

However, variations existed in practice: sometimes brothers succeeded each other, other kinsmen might claim the throne, and in rare cases, women (like Prabhavati Gupta) exercised power.

The importance of patriliny was not limited to rulers; it is also evident in ritual texts like the Rigveda, suggesting these attitudes might have been shared by wealthy and high-status groups, including Brahmanas.

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Rules Of Marriage

Within the patrilineal framework, daughters were viewed differently from sons; they had no automatic claim to the resources of their birth household. Marrying daughters outside the kin group (exogamy) was considered desirable.

Exogamy meant that the lives of young women from high-status families were often carefully controlled to ensure marriages at the appropriate time and with suitable partners outside their own kin.

The concept of kanyadana (gift of a daughter in marriage) emerged as an important religious duty for fathers within this system.

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With the growth of new towns (c. 6th century BCE onwards), increased interaction between people from different backgrounds in urban areas may have led to questioning traditional beliefs and practices. In response, Brahmanas detailed social codes in texts like the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras (from c. 500 BCE). The most important, the Manusmriti, was compiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE.

Brahmana authors claimed these norms had universal validity, but social reality was likely more complex, and their influence varied regionally. These texts recognized eight forms of marriage, classifying the first four as "good" and condemning the others. The condemned forms might have been practiced by groups not adhering to Brahmanical norms.

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Marriage Types:

• Endogamy: Marriage within a specific social unit (kin group, caste, locality).
• Exogamy: Marriage outside a specific social unit.
• Polygyny: A man having multiple wives.
• Polyandry: A woman having multiple husbands.

The Gotra Of Women

One important Brahmanical practice from c. 1000 BCE onwards was the classification of people into gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer (sage), and all members of a gotra were considered descendants of that seer.

Key rules associated with the gotra system:

• Women were expected to adopt their husband's gotra after marriage and give up their father's gotra.
• Marriage between members of the same gotra was prohibited (an exogamous rule).

Historians investigate if these rules were commonly followed by studying names, which sometimes derived from gotra names. Inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers (c. 2nd century BCE - 2nd century CE) provide insights into their practices.

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An examination of the names of women who married Satavahana rulers reveals that many retained their father's gotra name (e.g., names derived from Gotama and Vasistha) after marriage, contrary to the Brahmanical rule of adopting the husband's gotra.

Furthermore, some of these women married men belonging to the same gotra, which directly violated the Brahmanical rule of gotra exogamy. This practice exemplified endogamy (marriage within the kin group), which was (and still is) prevalent in some communities, particularly in south India. Marriages between kin (like cousins) helped maintain close-knit communities.

Were Mothers Important?

The use of metronymics by Satavahana rulers (identifying themselves by their mother's name, e.g., Gotami-puta, son of Gotami) might suggest the importance of mothers. However, historians caution against drawing this conclusion too quickly.

In the case of the Satavahanas, succession to the throne was generally patrilineal, meaning the son inherited from the father, regardless of the mother's name used in identification. While mothers' names were used, it does not necessarily indicate that mothers held political power or that lineage was traced through the mother's side for succession.

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Social Differences: Within And Beyond The Framework Of Caste

The concept of caste refers to a hierarchical system of social categories. In Brahmanical texts like the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, an ideal fourfold order of society (varnas) was prescribed:

• Brahmanas (priests, scholars) - ranked first.
• Kshatriyas (warriors, rulers).
• Vaishyas (merchants, agriculturalists).
• Shudras (servants of the other three varnas) - placed at the bottom.

This varna order was claimed to be divinely ordained, and one's position was supposedly determined by birth.

The “Right” Occupation

Brahmanical texts prescribed specific ideal occupations for each varna:

• Brahmanas: Studying/teaching Vedas, performing/getting sacrifices performed, giving/receiving gifts.
• Kshatriyas: Warfare, protecting people, administering justice, studying Vedas, getting sacrifices performed, making gifts.
• Vaishyas: Agriculture, pastoralism, trade, studying Vedas, getting sacrifices performed, making gifts.
• Shudras: Serving the other three varnas.

Brahmanas used strategies to enforce these norms: claiming divine origin for the varna system, advising kings to enforce norms, and attempting to persuade people that status was birth-based. Stories in epics like the Mahabharata were used to reinforce these prescriptions.

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Non-Kshatriya Kings

Contrary to the Shastras' prescription that only Kshatriyas could be kings, historical evidence shows that several important ruling lineages had non-Kshatriya origins. The social background of the Mauryas is debated; some texts call them of "low" origin. The Shungas and Kanvas, who succeeded the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. The Shakas from Central Asia were considered "mlechchhas" (outsiders) by Brahmanas, yet some became powerful rulers familiar with Sanskritic traditions (like Rudradaman).

Political power was often attained by those who could mobilize support and resources, regardless of their varna origin.

Even the Satavahana ruler Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, who claimed to be a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of Kshatriya pride, and claimed to prevent varna intermarriage, also entered into a marriage alliance with the kin of the Shaka ruler Rudradaman. This shows that the rigid varna framework was often not strictly followed in reality, especially by those in power. The Satavahanas claimed a high varna but practised endogamy and formed alliances with those outside the prescribed system, demonstrating the complexity of caste integration.

Jatis And Social Mobility

Texts also use the term jati to refer to social categories. Unlike the fixed four varnas, the number of jatis was not fixed. Brahmanical authorities classified new groups (like forest dwellers - nishadas) or occupational categories (like goldsmiths - suvarnakara) that didn't fit the varna system as jatis. Jatis were often based on occupation.

Jatis with common occupations sometimes organized into shrenis or guilds. While detailed histories of these groups are rare, an inscription (c. 5th century CE) from Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh) records the history of a guild of silk weavers who migrated from Gujarat. It shows guild members shared a craft but also engaged in other occupations and collectively invested wealth in a temple.

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Beyond The Four Varnas: Integration

The Indian subcontinent has always had diverse populations whose social practices were not fully aligned with Brahmanical ideas. Sanskrit texts sometimes described these groups (like forest dwellers or nomadic pastoralists) as odd or outside the main social system (e.g., labeling non-Sanskrit speakers as mlechchhas).

Despite these classifications, there was interaction and sharing of ideas between these groups and the Brahmanical tradition, sometimes reflected in stories in texts like the Mahabharata.

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Beyond The Four Varnas Subordination And Conflict

Beyond classifying groups as outside the varna system, Brahmanas also created sharper social divides by designating certain categories as “untouchable”. This concept was based on notions of purity and pollution. Activities considered polluting (handling corpses, dead animals) led to those performing them (like chandalas) being placed at the very bottom of the social hierarchy.

Their touch, or even sight, was regarded as polluting by those claiming high status. The Manusmriti prescribed degrading duties and living conditions for chandalas: living outside the village, using discarded utensils, wearing clothes of the dead, using iron ornaments, not being allowed in villages/cities at night, disposing of unclaimed bodies, and serving as executioners.

Historical accounts from visitors like Chinese monk Fa Xian (c. 5th century CE) and Xuan Zang (c. 7th century CE) confirm that “untouchables” (like chandalas, executioners, scavengers) were segregated, living outside cities and using means (like clappers) to warn others of their presence.

Historians examine non-Brahmanical texts to see if chandalas accepted this prescribed degradation. While some depictions align with Brahmanical texts, others hint at different social realities or possible resistance.

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Beyond Birth Resources And Status

Beyond birth, a person's access to economic resources significantly shaped their social position in early societies. Individuals like slaves, landless labourers, hunters, peasants, craftspersons, merchants, and kings occupied different social strata based on their control over resources like land, labor, and wealth.

Gendered Access To Property

Access to economic resources was also often differentiated by gender.

The Mahabharata story where Yudhisthira stakes and loses property, including his wife Draupadi, highlights issues of ownership and the treatment of women as property.

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According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was generally divided among sons after parents' death, with a larger share for the eldest. Women were typically excluded from inheriting a share of the paternal estate.

However, women were allowed to keep gifts received at marriage (stridhana, woman's wealth), which could be inherited by their children, independent of the husband's claims. Yet, the Manusmriti also cautioned women against independently managing family property or their own wealth without the husband's permission.

Evidence suggests that while upper-class women (like queens such as Prabhavati Gupta) might have had access to resources, control over land, cattle, and money was generally held by men. This difference in access to resources significantly contributed to the sharpening of social differences between men and women.

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Varna And Access To Property

According to Brahmanical texts, varna was another criterion regulating access to wealth. Since Shudras were ideally assigned only servitude, while the first three varnas had access to various occupations including agriculture, trade, and administration, the Shastras implicitly suggested that Brahmanas and Kshatriyas (and Vaishyas through trade/agriculture) would be the wealthiest.

This aligns somewhat with descriptions in other texts depicting kings (Kshatriyas) as invariably wealthy and priests (Brahmanas) generally rich, although acknowledging poor Brahmanas existed.

Early Buddhism (from c. 6th century BCE) critiqued the varna system. Buddhists recognized social differences but rejected the idea that status was natural, inherent, or determined by birth alone. They challenged the claim of status based solely on birth.

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An Alternative Social Scenario: Sharing Wealth

While many situations involved status claims based on wealth accumulation, alternative social values also existed, particularly in ancient Tamilakam. Texts suggest that in this region, generosity was valued, and those who controlled resources were expected to share them, while miserliness was despised.

Poems in Tamil Sangam literature (c. 1st century CE onwards) describe chiefs who were patrons of bards and poets. These poems illustrate social and economic relationships and expectations regarding the distribution of wealth by those in power.

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The sculpture shows the difference between the chief and his follower primarily through their size, positioning, attire, and possibly posture. The chief is depicted larger in size, in a central or prominent position, possibly seated or elevated, with more elaborate clothing, jewellery, or headdress, conveying higher status and authority. The follower is smaller, positioned behind or beside the chief, possibly standing or in a more subordinate posture, with simpler attire, indicating their lower status and subservient role.

Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract

Buddhism offered an alternative perspective on social inequalities and the origins of social institutions, including kingship, through a social contract myth found in the Sutta Pitaka.

The myth suggests that originally, humans lived in an idyllic state without social divisions, taking only what they needed from nature. However, increasing greed, vindictiveness, and deceit led to conflict and deterioration of this state.

To regulate this conflict, humans collectively decided to select a leader, called the mahasammata (the great elect). This leader would be responsible for maintaining order, punishing wrongdoing, and banishing offenders. In return for these services, the people agreed to give him a portion of their rice (a form of payment or tax).

This Buddhist myth implies that kingship was not divinely ordained but based on a human choice and agreement, where the ruler was paid by the people for providing services (protection, justice). It emphasizes human agency in creating and institutionalizing social and economic relations.

The implication is that if humans created the system, they also have the potential to change it.

Handling Texts Historians And The Mahabharata

Historians analyzing texts like the Mahabharata consider various aspects to understand their historical significance:

• Language: Was it Prakrit, Pali, or Tamil (languages of ordinary people) or Sanskrit (language of priests/elites)?
• Content Type: Was it narrative (stories), didactic (prescribing norms), mantras (ritual chants), etc.?
• Author(s) and Perspective: Who composed the text? What were their backgrounds and viewpoints?
• Intended Audience: Who was the text written for? (Authors often consider audience interests).
• Date and Place of Composition: When and where was the text likely composed or compiled?

These assessments are crucial for interpreting the content and historical context of a complex text like the Mahabharata.

Language And Content

The version of the Mahabharata primarily studied is in Sanskrit. However, the Sanskrit is simpler than Vedic Sanskrit or the Sanskrit in prashastis, suggesting it was probably understood by a wider audience.

Historians broadly classify the text's content as narrative (stories) and didactic (social norms). While there is overlap, historians generally agree the narrative was the core, with didactic portions likely added later. The most important didactic section is the Bhagavad Gita, embedded in the epic, containing Lord Krishna's advice to Arjuna.

Early Sanskrit tradition refers to the Mahabharata as an itihasa, meaning "thus it was," often translated as "history." Whether the epic is based on an actual war among kinfolk is debated. Some historians believe it preserves memory of a real conflict; others find no independent evidence of such a battle.

Author(S) And Dates

Authorship is complex. The original story might have been composed orally by sutas (charioteer-bards) accompanying warriors, celebrating victories. From the 5th century BCE, Brahmanas likely took over, committing it to writing. This coincides with chiefdoms (Kurus, Panchalas) becoming kingdoms. The text might reflect the upheavals and changing social norms of this period.

Another phase (c. 200 BCE - 200 CE) saw additions, possibly related to the rising importance of Vishnu worship and Krishna's identification with Vishnu. Later (c. 200 - 400 CE), large didactic sections, similar to the Manusmriti, were added. The text grew from under 10,000 verses to about 100,000, traditionally attributed to sage Vyasa.

The Search For Convergence

Historians compare the epic's descriptions with archaeological evidence. B.B. Lal excavated Hastinapura (Meerut, UP), located in the Kuru kingdom area. He found five occupational levels. Phase 2 (c. 12th-7th centuries BCE) had mud/mud-brick houses with reed walls. Phase 3 (c. 6th-3rd centuries BCE) had mud-brick/burnt-brick houses, soakage jars, brick drains, and ring-wells (wells/drainage pits).

This raises questions: Were urban descriptions added later, reflecting the flourishing of cities from the 6th century BCE? Or were they poetic exaggeration?

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Another challenge is Draupadi's marriage to the five Pandavas (polyandry), central to the narrative. The text's author(s) offer multiple explanations (Source 16), suggesting polyandry was unusual from the Brahmanical viewpoint and needed justification as the text evolved.

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Polyandry existed (e.g., in Himalayan regions) and might have occurred in crisis situations (e.g., shortage of women due to warfare). However, its association with central characters in the epic, despite not being the most prevalent form of marriage, might reflect the narrative's requirements rather than strictly social realities.

A Dynamic Text

The Mahabharata continued to grow and transform beyond the Sanskrit version. Over centuries, it was retold in various languages, with regional stories incorporated and the central narrative adapted. Episodes were depicted in art and performed in plays, dance, and other narrations, showing its dynamic nature and ongoing dialogue with different communities and traditions.

Retellings often creatively adapt the main story. Mahashweta Devi's story "Kunti O Nishadi" provides an alternative perspective on an episode (the house of lac plot) silent in the Sanskrit text, highlighting the fate of marginalized characters (a Nishada woman and her sons) caught in the Pandavas' escape. This demonstrates how the epic continues to be reinterpreted to raise new questions about social issues.