Chapter 7. An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara (C. Fourteenth To Sixteenth Century)

Vijayanagara, meaning "city of victory," was the name of both a prominent city and the empire it ruled. Founded in the 14th century, the Vijayanagara Empire was a major power in South India until its decline in the 16th century. In 1565, the capital city was attacked and subsequently deserted, falling into ruin over the next centuries.

Despite its physical ruin, the city lived on in the collective memory of people in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab region, who referred to it as Hampi, a name derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi. The combination of these oral traditions with archaeological findings, surviving monuments, inscriptions, and other historical records eventually allowed scholars to "rediscover" and reconstruct the history of the Vijayanagara Empire.

The Discovery Of Hampi

The ruined city of Hampi was brought to scholarly attention in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian working for the English East India Company. Mackenzie is credited with preparing the first survey map of the site.

His initial information about the site and its history was significantly based on the oral traditions and memories of priests from the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi, indicating the importance of local knowledge in the discovery process.

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Further efforts to document and reconstruct the history of Vijayanagara included:

• Photographers beginning to record the monuments from 1856, providing visual documentation for scholarly study.
• Epigraphists starting to collect inscriptions found at Hampi temples as early as 1836.

Historians collated information from these diverse sources (archaeological finds, oral traditions, inscriptions, accounts of foreign travelers, literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit) to reconstruct the history of the city and the empire.

Rayas, Nayakas And Sultans

According to tradition and epigraphic evidence, the Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka. The empire's territory expanded and contracted over time, encompassing people who spoke different languages and followed various religious traditions.

The rulers of Vijayanagara were known as rayas. They faced competition from contemporary regional powers, including the Sultans of the Deccan (to the north) and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa (to the northeast). This competition was primarily for control over fertile river valleys and the wealth generated from lucrative overseas trade.

Despite rivalries, interaction between these states led to a sharing of ideas, particularly influencing architectural styles and building techniques in Vijayanagara, which the rayas adopted and further developed.

Some areas incorporated into the empire already had histories of powerful states like the Cholas (Tamil Nadu) and Hoysalas (Karnataka), known for constructing elaborate temples (e.g., Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, Chennakeshava temple at Belur). The rayas built upon these existing traditions, enhancing them to "new heights."

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Karnataka samrajyamu: While historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire, contemporary sources in the region referred to it as the karnataka samrajyamu.

Gajapati, ashvapati, narapati: Gajapati ("lord of elephants") was the title of rulers in Orissa. In Vijayanagara's popular tradition, Deccan Sultans were called ashvapati ("lord of horses") and the rayas themselves were called narapati ("lord of men"). These titles reflect the perceived strengths or resources associated with these different powers.

Kings And Traders

Effective cavalry (soldiers on horseback) was crucial for warfare during this period. This made the import of horses, primarily from Arabia and Central Asia, very important for rival kingdoms like Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates. This trade was initially dominated by Arab merchants.

Local merchant communities, known as kudirai chettis ("horse merchants"), also participated in these exchanges.

From 1498, the Portuguese arrived on the west coast and became significant players in the trade and military affairs of the region. Their superior military technology, especially the use of muskets, allowed them to establish trading and military outposts and influence local politics.

Vijayanagara was also a notable center for markets trading in spices, textiles, and precious stones. Such markets were considered symbols of status for the city, reflecting a wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic goods.

Revenue generated from trade significantly contributed to the state's prosperity.

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The Apogee And Decline Of The Empire

Power struggles within the Vijayanagara polity involved members of the ruling lineage and military commanders. The empire was ruled by successive dynasties:

• Sangama Dynasty: Ruled until 1485.
• Saluva Dynasty: Military commanders, ruled until 1503.
• Tuluva Dynasty: Replaced the Saluvas, ruled thereafter.

Krishnadeva Raya, the most famous ruler of Vijayanagara, belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His reign (1509-1529) was a period of significant expansion and consolidation. Key achievements included acquiring the fertile Raichur doab (land between Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers), subduing the rulers of Orissa, and inflicting defeats on the Sultan of Bijapur. His rule saw the empire flourish in conditions of relative peace and prosperity, although maintaining military preparedness was constant.

Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building impressive temples and adding grand gopurams (gateways) to existing temples in South India. He also founded a suburban township called Nagalapuram, named after his mother.

Strain on the imperial structure increased after Krishnadeva Raya's death in 1529, with rebellious nayakas (military chiefs) challenging central authority. By 1542, control shifted to the Aravidu Dynasty, who ruled until the late 17th century. Military ambitions of both Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates led to shifting alliances and conflicts.

The major turning point was the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) in 1565. Rama Raya, Vijayanagara's chief minister, led the army but was routed by the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda). The victorious armies subsequently sacked and plundered the city of Vijayanagara, leading to its total abandonment within a few years. The empire's focus shifted eastward, with the Aravidu dynasty ruling from Penukonda and later Chandragiri.

Despite the final devastating conflict, relations between the Vijayanagara rulers and the Deccan Sultans were not consistently hostile, even with religious differences. Krishnadeva Raya supported some claimants in the Sultanates and used the title "establisher of the Yavana kingdom" (Yavana referring to Turks/Muslims). Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened in Vijayanagara succession disputes. Both sides were sometimes keen on each other's stability. The disastrous defeat in 1565 was attributed to Rama Raya's policy of trying to manipulate and play off the Sultans against each other, prompting them to unite against him.

Yavana: A Sanskrit word historically used for Greeks and other groups entering the subcontinent from the northwest, including sometimes applied to Turks/Muslims.

The Rayas And The Nayakas

Military chiefs, known as nayakas, held considerable power within the Vijayanagara Empire. They controlled forts and maintained armed supporters. Nayakas often moved to new areas, sometimes accompanied by peasants seeking fertile land. They typically spoke Telugu or Kannada.

While most nayakas were subordinate to the kings (rayas) of Vijayanagara, they occasionally rebelled and had to be militarily subdued.

A significant political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire was the amara-nayaka system. This system is believed to have borrowed features from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.

Amara-nayakas were military commanders granted territories to govern by the raya. They were responsible for collecting taxes and other dues from the local population (peasants, craftspersons, traders) within their territory. They kept a portion of the revenue for their personal use and for maintaining a specified contingent of horses and elephants. These military contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with a strong fighting force that helped them control the southern peninsula.

Part of the collected revenue was also allocated for maintaining temples and irrigation works within their territories.

Amara-nayakas were required to send annual tribute to the king and appear personally at the royal court with gifts to demonstrate loyalty. Kings asserted control by occasionally transferring nayakas to different territories. However, by the 17th century, many nayakas became powerful enough to establish independent kingdoms, contributing to the collapse of the central imperial authority of Vijayanagara.

Amara: Believed to derive from Sanskrit 'samara' (battle/war) or resemble Persian 'amir' (high noble).

Vijayanagara The Capital And Its Environs

As an imperial capital, Vijayanagara was characterized by a distinctive physical layout and architectural style, reflecting its significance as a center of power and culture.

Water Resources

The location of Vijayanagara is notably defined by the natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra river flowing northeastward. The city is surrounded by striking granite hills.

Numerous streams flow from these rocky hills towards the river. Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of various sizes to store rainwater, as the region is one of the most arid parts of the peninsula.

Elaborate irrigation arrangements were made to channel water to the city. The Kamalapuram tank, built in the early 15th century, was crucial, irrigating nearby fields and supplying water to the "royal centre" via a channel.

The Hiriya canal is a prominent waterwork among the ruins, drawing water from a dam on the Tungabhadra to irrigate the cultivated valley between the "sacred centre" and "urban core." It was likely built by the Sangama dynasty kings.

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Fortifications And Roads

Vijayanagara was enclosed by massive fortress walls, impressively described by Abdur Razzaq as having seven lines of forts. These fortifications were unique in that they encircled not just the urban area but also the agricultural hinterland and surrounding forests.

The outermost wall connected surrounding hills. The masonry construction was slightly tapered, using wedge-shaped stone blocks held in place without mortar. The inner part was packed earth and rubble, with projecting bastions.

The enclosure of agricultural tracts within fortifications was significant. Foreign travelers observed cultivated fields, gardens, and houses between the walls. This strategy protected the food supply during sieges, which could last for months or years, contrasting with the common medieval practice of building granaries within forts to withstand starvation.

A second line of fortification enclosed the urban core, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, with major buildings inside also having their own high walls.

Entry into the fort was through well-guarded gates. Gateways were architecturally significant features. Arches and domes over gateways (Fig 7.6) are seen as typical of the Indo-Islamic style, influenced by architecture from Turkish Sultanates through ongoing interaction with local building practices.

Archaeologists have traced roads within and leading out of the city, following paths through gateways and identifying pavements. Roads generally followed valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Important roads connected to temple gateways and were lined with bazaars.

The Urban Core

Within the urban core, archaeological evidence of ordinary houses is limited (likely made of perishable materials). However, finds of fine Chinese porcelain suggest some areas were inhabited by rich traders. This area also included the Muslim residential quarter, where tombs and mosques (Fig 7.10) have been found, their architecture sometimes resembling the mandapas found in Hampi temples.

Historical descriptions by travelers like Barbosa mention ordinary houses were thatched but well-built and organized by occupation in long streets with open spaces. Field surveys show the area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples, indicating diverse cults. Wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks likely served as water sources for ordinary residents.

The Royal Centre

The royal centre, located in the southwestern part of the settlement, was the area associated with the king and his court. Despite its name, it contained over 60 temples, highlighting the importance of the rulers' patronage of temples and cults for establishing and legitimizing their authority by associating with divinities.

About thirty building complexes are identified as palaces. These were large structures, primarily built of masonry with superstructures of perishable materials (wood), unlike temples which were entirely masonry.

The Mahanavami Dibba

Some distinctive structures in the royal centre are named based on form and function. The "king's palace" enclosure is the largest but lacks definitive evidence of being a royal residence. It features two impressive platforms: the "audience hall" and the "mahanavami dibba".

The audience hall is a high platform with closely spaced slots for wooden pillars, suggesting a dense structure whose exact use is unclear.

The mahanavami dibba (Fig 7.11) is a massive platform on a high point in the city, believed to have supported a wooden structure. Its base is covered with intricate relief carvings (Fig 7.12).

Rituals here likely coincided with the Mahanavami festival (part of the ten-day autumn Hindu festival). Vijayanagara kings used this occasion to display their prestige, power, and authority through elaborate ceremonies: worship of images and the state horse, sacrifice of animals (buffaloes), dances, wrestling matches, processions of caparisoned animals, chariots, and soldiers, and ritual presentations by nayakas and subordinate kings who also brought gifts and tribute.

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Historians debate if the Mahanavami Dibba platform was the actual center for all these rituals, as the surrounding space seems limited for large processions. Its exact function remains somewhat enigmatic.

Other Buildings In The Royal Centre

The Lotus Mahal (Fig 7.15), named by British travelers, is a beautiful building in the royal centre. While its name is romantic, its original purpose is uncertain. One suggestion is that it was a council chamber where the king met advisers. It features arches possibly inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques.

While most temples were in the sacred centre, several were in the royal centre, signifying the rulers' connection with divinity. The Hazara Rama temple was likely for the exclusive use of the king and his family. Though images in the central shrine are missing, sculpted panels on walls depict scenes from the Ramayana (Fig 7.18).

Other structures include the "elephant stables" (Fig 7.17), located near the Lotus Mahal, noted for their arches and domes.

Although many Vijayanagara structures were destroyed, the building traditions for palatial structures were continued by the nayakas, and some of these later buildings survive (e.g., interior of audience hall at Madurai).

The Sacred Centre

The sacred centre of Vijayanagara was located at the rocky northern end of the city, on the banks of the Tungabhadra river. This area held deep religious significance.

Choosing A Capital

Local traditions associate the hills in this area with the monkey kingdom from the Ramayana. Other traditions center on Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, who performed penance in these hills to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom (recognized as a form of Shiva). The marriage is still celebrated annually at the Virupaksha temple.

Presence of Jaina temples from the pre-Vijayanagara period also indicates the area's long history of sacred associations. The very choice of the site for Vijayanagara was likely influenced by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi.

The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. Royal orders were signed "Shri Virupaksha" in the Kannada script. Kings also used the title "Hindu Suratrana" (Hindu Sultan), blending Hindu and Islamic political titles to indicate their connection to the divine and their status as powerful rulers.

Temple building traditions were long-standing in the region (Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Cholas). Rulers encouraged temple building to associate themselves with divinity (often identifying the deity with the king) and garner support. Temples were centers of learning, receiving land and resources for maintenance, and growing into significant religious, social, cultural, and economic hubs. For rulers, temple construction was a key means of projecting power, wealth, and piety.

Vijayanagara rulers built on these earlier traditions, incorporating royal portrait sculpture in temples and treating visits to temples as major state occasions with nayakas accompanying the king.

Gopurams And Mandapas

Temple architecture in this period developed new features, notably structures of immense scale reflecting imperial authority. The raya gopurams (royal gateways) were towering structures that often dwarfed the central shrine towers (Fig 7.7). They served as distant markers of the temple and symbolized the king's power to command resources and skills for their construction.

Other distinctive features included mandapas (pavilions) and long, pillared corridors surrounding shrines.

Two important temples are the Virupaksha temple and the Vitthala temple.

• Virupaksha Temple: Built over centuries. Earliest shrine (9th-10th centuries) substantially enlarged under Vijayanagara rule. Krishnadeva Raya built the hall in front of main shrine (with carved pillars) to mark his accession and the eastern gopuram. Halls used for music/dance programs, deity marriages, and deities' swings.
• Vitthala Temple: Dedicated to Vitthala (a form of Vishnu from Maharashtra), indicating integration of different traditions into imperial culture. Features halls, a unique shrine designed as a chariot (Fig 7.24).

Temple complexes had chariot streets extending straight from gopurams, paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions housing merchant shops. Nayakas continued temple building traditions, constructing spectacular gopurams (Fig 7.26).

Plotting Palaces, Temples And Bazaars

Understanding Vijayanagara relies on detailed documentation from various sources. After Mackenzie's initial surveys, information was compiled from travelers' accounts and inscriptions. The site was preserved by archaeological departments.

From the 1980s, an extensive project documented material remains using intensive surveys and recording techniques over two decades, involving scholars globally.

Mapping was a significant part of this project, dividing the site into progressively smaller squares (e.g., 25 large squares, each subdivided), revealing traces of thousands of structures from small shrines to elaborate temples, roads, paths, and bazaars (identified by pillar bases, platforms).

Researchers emphasize imagining vanished wooden elements (columns, roofs, towers), which were plastered and painted, to reconstruct the vibrant appearance of structures, using traveler descriptions (Fig 7.30 shows a plan of a temple excavated and mapped).

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Questions In Search Of Answers

Buildings provide information on spatial organization, construction, materials, techniques, cultural influences, defense, and intended messages. However, they don't reveal everything.

Buildings alone don't tell us what ordinary people thought of them, if they could access royal/sacred areas, how they interacted with sculptures, or what the workers on these projects felt.

Key unanswered questions regarding construction:

• Who possessed the specialized knowledge for large-scale projects?
• Who planned the buildings?
• Where did the skilled workers (masons, stonecutters, sculptors) come from? (e.g., captured during war).
• What were their wages?
• Who supervised construction?
• How was building material transported, and from where?

Continuing research using sources beyond architecture may provide clues to these questions.