Chapter 8 WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM

Working Towards Change

The 19th century witnessed significant debates and discussions surrounding social customs and practices, fueled by new forms of communication like printed books and newspapers. Indian reformers, such as Raja Rammohun Roy, founded associations like the Brahmo Sabha to advocate for social change. They challenged practices like Sati, citing ancient texts to argue against its legitimacy, and promoted widow remarriage, facing opposition from conservative groups. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, a prominent advocate for widow remarriage, faced social boycotts for his efforts. The movement for widow remarriage gained momentum, with reformers in other regions also working towards this cause. Simultaneously, there was a growing realization of the importance of girls' education, despite initial societal fears about its impact on domestic duties and societal norms.

Girls Begin Going To School

In the mid-19th century, schools for girls were established by reformers and Christian missionaries. Initially met with apprehension due to fears of disrupting domestic life and exposure to public spaces, girls' education gradually expanded. Reformers like Vidyasagar and Jyotirao Phule (who challenged caste inequalities and opened schools for girls in Maharashtra) played crucial roles. Muslim reformers like the Begums of Bhopal and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain also established schools for girls, advocating for education and challenging conservative ideas.

Women Write About Women

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw women actively participating in reform movements by writing books, editing magazines, and founding schools. Rashsundari Devi's autobiography, Amar Jiban, provided insights into women's lives. Tarabai Shinde critiqued gender inequalities in her book Stripurushtulna, and Pandita Ramabai advocated for widows' rights and economic independence by establishing a widows' home. These writings challenged prevailing social norms and envisioned a more equitable society.

Law Against Child Marriage

With the growing momentum for reform and increased public awareness, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929, prohibiting marriage for men below 18 and women below 16, later raised to 21 for men and 18 for women. This law, introduced by Indian legislators, faced less opposition than earlier reform measures.

Caste And Social Reform

Social reformers also addressed caste inequalities. Rammohun Roy critiqued the caste system, and the Prarthana Samaj advocated for spiritual equality across castes. The Paramhans Mandali in Bombay worked towards abolishing caste. Many reformers, often from upper castes, secretly violated caste taboos regarding food and touch to challenge societal prejudices. Meanwhile, Christian missionaries established schools for tribal and lower-caste children, providing them with resources to navigate societal changes. The poor, often from low castes, migrated to cities for employment in factories and municipalities, seeking escape from caste oppression and daily humiliation.

Demands For Equality And Justice

From the mid-19th century onwards, movements against caste discrimination emerged from Non-Brahman castes who gained education and influence. They challenged Brahmanical claims to superiority, arguing that indigenous populations (Dravidians) had been subjugated by Aryan invaders. Leaders like Ghasidas (Satnami movement) and Haridas Thakur (Matua sect) worked for the upliftment of lower castes. Shri Narayana Guru in Kerala championed social equality and unity, advocating "one caste, one religion, one god for humankind." These movements aimed to foster self-esteem among subordinate castes and challenge traditional hierarchies.

Gulamgiri

Jyotirao Phule, a prominent low-caste leader, criticized the Aryan invasion theory and advocated for Shudras and Ati Shudras to unite against caste discrimination. He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj to promote caste equality. Phule dedicated his book Gulamgiri ("Slavery") to American anti-slavery activists, drawing parallels between caste oppression in India and slavery in America. He also criticized nationalist movements led by upper-caste leaders for perpetuating caste divisions.

Who Could Enter Temples?

In 19th-century India, untouchables were often denied entry into temples and access to public water sources. Ambedkar initiated temple entry movements, challenging caste prejudices and asserting the equal humanity of Dalits. He advocated for reorganizing Hindu society based on equality and the absence of casteism.

The Non-Brahman Movement

Emerging in the early 20th century, the Non-Brahman movement, led by those who had gained education and influence, challenged Brahmanical dominance and argued for the rights of indigenous Dravidian populations. Leaders like E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) criticized religious texts for perpetuating social divisions and advocated for self-respect and social equality, sometimes suggesting freedom from all religions to achieve this.

Organising For Reform

Reform movements gained strength through various organizations and activities, including the founding of schools for girls (by Ramabai, Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain), challenges to child marriage (leading to the Child Marriage Restraint Act), and critiques of caste inequalities (by Rammohun Roy, Prarthana Samaj, Paramhans Mandali). These efforts aimed to improve women's status, abolish caste discrimination, and create a more just society.

The Brahmo Samaj

Founded by Rammohun Roy in 1830, the Brahmo Samaj promoted monotheism, prohibited idol worship, respected Upanishadic traditions, and encouraged inter-religious understanding. It drew upon ideals from Hinduism and Christianity to advocate for social reform, including women's education and the abolition of practices like Sati.

Derozio And Young Bengal

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a teacher in Calcutta, influenced his students with radical ideas promoting questioning authority, women's education, and freedom of thought, leading to the Young Bengal Movement.

The Ramakrishna Mission And Swami Vivekananda

Inspired by Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda promoted social service and selfless action as paths to salvation. He advocated for uplifting the masses and fostering a sense of national unity, combining modern outlook with traditional Indian spiritual values.

The Prarthana Samaj

Established in Bombay in 1867, the Prarthana Samaj aimed to abolish caste restrictions, end child marriage, promote women's education, and allow widow remarriage, drawing inspiration from various religious texts.

The Veda Samaj

Founded in Madras in 1864 and inspired by the Brahmo Samaj, the Veda Samaj worked for the abolition of caste distinctions and promoted widow remarriage and women's education, believing in one God and condemning orthodox Hindu rituals.

The Aligarh Movement

Led by Sayyid Ahmed Khan, the Aligarh Movement established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) in 1875 to provide modern education, including Western science, to Muslims, significantly impacting educational reform.

The Singh Sabha Movement

The Singh Sabhas, formed in Amritsar and Lahore in the late 19th century, aimed to reform Sikhism by removing superstitions and caste practices deemed non-Sikh, while promoting modern education integrated with Sikh teachings.

Exercises

The exercises in this chapter focus on understanding the contributions of various reformers and the challenges they faced, as well as the historical context of social reform movements. Questions ask students to match reformers with their ideas, state the truthfulness of statements about social practices and reform movements, and discuss the reasons behind women's exclusion from education, the importance of ancient texts for reformers, the reasons for missionary criticism, and the opportunities created by colonial rule for lower castes. Activities include researching contemporary heroes of tribal revolts, exploring the lives of tribal groups, and role-playing a conversation between a jhum cultivator and British officials.