Chapter 5 Natural Vegetation

Types Of Forests

India's diverse climatic and soil conditions support a wide range of natural vegetation, from the tropical evergreen forests of the northeast to the desert vegetation of Rajasthan. These vegetation types can be broadly classified based on common features like dominant plant types and climatic regions. The main categories of Indian forests are:

• Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests
• Tropical Deciduous Forests
• Tropical Thorn Forests
• Montane Forests
• Littoral and Swamp Forests

Historically, forests were exploited for economic value, with practices like replacing oak forests with pine for railway lines and clearing areas for plantations like tea and rubber. This shifted the focus from protection to commercial use.

Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests

Distribution: These forests are found in the western slopes of the Western Ghats, the hills of the northeastern region, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Climate: They thrive in warm and humid areas that receive over 200 cm of annual rainfall and maintain an average annual temperature above 22°C.

Characteristics:

• Stratification: The forests are well-stratified, with distinct layers of vegetation closer to the ground, consisting of shrubs and creepers, followed by shorter trees and then tall trees reaching up to 60 meters or more.
• Year-round Greenery: Trees do not have a specific time for shedding leaves, flowering, or fruiting, which contributes to their evergreen appearance throughout the year.
• Key Species: Important trees include rosewood, mahogany, aini, and ebony.

Semi Evergreen Forests: These are found in regions with slightly less rainfall than the evergreen forests. They are characterized by a mix of evergreen and moist deciduous trees, with undergrowing climbers lending an evergreen appearance. Common species include white cedar, hollock, and kail.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Distribution: These are the most widespread forests in India, often referred to as monsoon forests. They are found in regions receiving annual rainfall between 70 cm and 200 cm.

Classification: Based on water availability, they are further divided into moist and dry deciduous forests.

• Moist Deciduous Forests:
• Rainfall: Occur in areas receiving 100-200 cm of rainfall.
• Location: Found in the northeastern states, foothills of the Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, and Odisha.
• Key Species: Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood.
• Dry Deciduous Forests:
• Rainfall: Found in regions with 70-100 cm of rainfall.
• Location: Spread across vast areas of the country, including rainier parts of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• Characteristics: In wetter areas, they transition into moist deciduous forests, and in drier areas, into thorn forests. In regions with higher rainfall on the Peninsular plateau and northern plains, they exhibit a parkland landscape with scattered trees and patches of grass.
• Seasonal Appearance: During the dry season, trees shed their leaves completely, making the forest appear like grassland with bare trees.
• Common Trees: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, and axlewood.

In the arid regions of western and southern Rajasthan, vegetation is sparse due to low rainfall and overgrazing.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Distribution: These forests are found in areas receiving less than 50 cm of rainfall. They are characteristic of semi-arid regions, including parts of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.

Characteristics:

• Vegetation Type: Primarily consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
• Seasonal Appearance: Plants remain leafless for most of the year, giving the appearance of scrub vegetation.
• Key Species: Important species include babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, and palas.
• Undergrowth: Tussocky grass grows up to a height of 2 meters as undergrowth.

Montane Forests

Characteristics: Mountain forests exhibit a change in vegetation with increasing altitude due to decreasing temperatures. They can be classified into northern and southern mountain forests.

Northern Mountain Forests (Himalayan Ranges):

• Succession: Vegetation changes from tropical at the foothills to temperate and then to alpine with increasing altitude.
• Foothills: Deciduous forests are found here.
• 1,000-2,000 m Altitude: Characterized by wet temperate forests.
• Higher Hill Ranges (Northeast India, West Bengal, Uttarakhand): Dominated by evergreen broad-leaf trees like oak and chestnut.
• 1,500-1,750 m Altitude: Well-developed pine forests, with Chir Pine being a valuable commercial tree.
• Western Himalayan Range: Deodar, a durable wood valuable for construction, grows here. Chinar and walnut, important for Kashmir handicrafts, are also found.
• 2,225-3,048 m Altitude: Blue pine and spruce appear. Temperate grasslands are also present.
• 3,000-4,000 m Altitude: Alpine forests and pastures with species like silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, and rhododendrons. These pastures are used for transhumance by tribes.
• North vs. South Slopes: Southern slopes generally have a thicker vegetation cover due to higher precipitation compared to drier north-facing slopes.
• Highest Reaches: Mosses and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation.

Southern Mountain Forests:

• Location: Found in the Western Ghats, Vindhyas, and Nilgiris.
• Climate Influence: Due to their proximity to the tropics and elevation (around 1,500 m), higher regions have temperate vegetation, while lower regions of the Western Ghats have subtropical vegetation.
• Temperate Forests (Sholas): In the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, and Palani hills, these temperate forests are known as Sholas.
• Economically Significant Trees: Magnolia, laurel, cinchona, and wattle are found here.
• Other Locations: Similar forests are also present in the Satpura and Maikal ranges.

Littoral and Swamp Forests

Distribution: These forests are found in coastal areas, tidal creeks, mudflats, estuaries, and along salt marshes.

Characteristics:

• Mangrove Vegetation: These forests consist of a variety of salt-tolerant plant species, commonly known as mangroves.
• Root System: The dense network of roots of mangrove trees provides shelter for a wide array of fauna, from fish to shrimp.
• Biodiversity: They support a significant population of birds (over 170 species known).
• Adaptation: The plants are adapted to saline and freshwater environments.
• Tiger Adaptation: In the Sunderbans, tigers are adept swimmers and hunt prey like chital deer, barking deer, wild pig, and macaques.
• Key Species: The Sunderbans are characterized by Heritiera fomes, valued for its timber.
• Area and Significance: Mangrove forests cover approximately 6,740 sq. km in India, representing 7% of the world's mangrove forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other significant areas include the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna rivers.
• Conservation Need: These valuable forests are facing encroachment and require conservation efforts.

Wetlands: India possesses diverse wetland habitats, with about 70% used for paddy cultivation. Two major wetland sites, Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur), are protected under the Ramsar Convention.

Forest Cover In India

Forest Area vs. Forest Cover:

• Forest Area: Refers to land officially notified and recorded as forest land, regardless of whether it has trees or not. This is based on state revenue department records.
• Actual Forest Cover: Denotes the land area occupied by forests with a tree canopy. This is determined using aerial photographs and satellite imagery.

Statistics (as per India State of Forest Report 2011):

• Total Forest Area: Approximately 23.28% of the country's total land area.
• Actual Forest Cover: 21.05% of the country's total land area.
• Breakdown of Forest Cover: Dense forests constitute 12.29%, and open forests constitute 8.75%.

Variations in Forest Cover:

• State-wise Differences: Forest cover varies significantly across states. Lakshadweep has 0% forest area, while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 86.93%.
• Low Forest Cover Regions: States with less than 10% forest area are predominantly in the north and northwest, including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi. Forests in Punjab and Haryana have been largely cleared for cultivation.
• Medium Forest Cover Regions: States like Tamil Nadu and West Bengal have 10-20% forest area.
• Peninsular India: Excluding Tamil Nadu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Goa, the forest cover ranges from 20-30%.
• Northeastern States: Generally have more than 30% forest cover.
• Hilly Topography and Rainfall: Areas with hilly topography and heavy rainfall are conducive to forest growth.
• Range in Actual Forest Cover: Varies from 9.56% in Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01% in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Ecological Balance: According to the forest policy, maintaining approximately one-third of the geographical area under forest cover is considered essential for ecological balance.

Regions of Forest Concentration:

• High Concentration (>40%): States with a high percentage of forest cover.
• Medium Concentration (20-40%): States with moderate forest cover.
• Low Concentration (10-20%): States with limited forest cover.
• Very Low Concentration (<10%): States with minimal forest cover.

Forest Conservation

Forests are vital for ecological balance and provide numerous direct and indirect benefits to society and the economy. Their conservation is crucial for human survival and prosperity.

Forest Policy: The Government of India's forest policy, initially proposed in 1952 and modified in 1988, emphasizes sustainable forest management. The revised policy aims to conserve and expand forest reserves while meeting the needs of local populations.

Objectives of the Forest Policy (1988):

• Bringing 33% of the geographical area under forest cover.
• Maintaining environmental stability and restoring ecological balance in disturbed areas.
• Conserving the country's natural heritage, biological diversity, and genetic pool.
• Checking soil erosion, preventing desertification, and mitigating floods and droughts.
• Increasing forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded lands.
• Enhancing forest productivity to provide timber, fuel, fodder, and food for rural populations and encouraging wood substitution.
• Promoting widespread public participation, especially involving women, in tree planting and reducing pressure on existing forests.

Social Forestry

Definition: Social forestry involves the management, protection, and afforestation of forests and barren lands to promote environmental, social, and rural development.

Categories (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976):

• Urban Forestry: Management and raising of trees in and around urban centers (e.g., green belts, parks, roadside avenues).
• Rural Forestry: Focuses on promoting agro-forestry (integrating trees with agriculture) and community forestry.
• Farm Forestry: Farmers grow trees on their farmlands for commercial or non-commercial purposes. This includes planting trees on field margins, grasslands, and around homes. Forest departments often distribute seedlings to farmers.

Community Forestry: This aspect of rural forestry involves raising trees on community lands (village pastures, temple lands, etc.) for the benefit of the entire community, particularly landless classes.

Wildlife

India possesses a rich wildlife heritage, estimated to host 4-5% of the world's known plant and animal species. This remarkable biodiversity is supported by the country's diverse ecosystems.

Threats to Wildlife: Over time, wildlife populations have declined significantly due to:

• Habitat Disturbance: Human activities like industrialization, technological advancements, deforestation for agriculture, settlements, roads, and mining have destroyed and fragmented wildlife habitats.
• Resource Exploitation: Increased demand for forest resources, including lopping for fodder and fuelwood, and removal of small timber by local communities.
• Grazing: Heavy grazing by domestic cattle impacts wildlife and their habitats.
• Hunting and Poaching: Historically a sport, hunting has escalated into rampant commercial poaching.
• Forest Fires: Incidences of forest fires further damage wildlife habitats.

Conservation of wildlife is important for national and global heritage and for promoting ecotourism.

Wildlife Conservation In India

India has a long tradition of wildlife protection, reflected in its folklore and conservation efforts.

Legal Framework:

• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: This comprehensive act provides the legal basis for wildlife conservation in India.
• Act Amendments: The act was significantly amended in 1991 to impose stricter penalties and include provisions for protecting specified plant species and endangered animals.

Conservation Areas: The Act classifies protected areas into:

• National Parks
• Wildlife Sanctuaries
• Closed Areas

Current Status: As of recent data, India has 103 National Parks and 535 Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Government Initiatives: Special steps have been taken in collaboration with UNESCO's ‘Man and Biosphere Programme’ for flora and fauna conservation.

• Project Tiger (1973): Launched to ensure the survival of viable tiger populations in India for scientific, aesthetic, cultural, and ecological reasons. It aims to preserve biological diversity as a natural heritage. It was initially implemented in nine reserves and has now expanded to 44 reserves across 17 states. Tiger population has shown an increase since its inception.
• Project Elephant (1992): Aims to ensure the long-term survival of viable elephant populations in their natural habitats and assist states with free-ranging wild elephants. It is implemented in 17 states.
• Other Projects: Include the Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul, and conservation efforts for the Himalayan Musk Deer.

Biosphere Reserves

A Biosphere Reserve is a designated area of terrestrial or coastal ecosystems that is internationally recognized under UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. These reserves aim to conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable development, and support research and monitoring.

Objectives of Biosphere Reserves:

• Conservation: Protecting the diversity of species, genes, ecosystems, and landscape.
• Sustainable Development: Promoting sustainable economic and human development.
• Research and Monitoring: Providing support for research, education, and monitoring activities.

India has 18 Biosphere Reserves, with ten of them recognized by UNESCO on the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

Establishment: September 1986 (India's first Biosphere Reserve).

Location: Encompasses sanctuaries like Wyanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur, Mudumalai, parts of Nilambur, Upper Nilgiri plateau, Silent Valley, and Siruvani hills in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.

Area: Approximately 5,520 sq. km.

Habitat Diversity: Features diverse habitat types, including scrub, dry and moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen and wet evergreen forests, sholas, grasslands, and swamps.

Biodiversity: Home to large populations of endangered species like the Nilgiri Tahr and Lion-tailed macaque. It also supports significant populations of elephants, tigers, gaurs, sambars, and chitals, along with endemic and endangered plant species.

Tribal Populations: Habitation for several tribal groups who traditionally live in harmony with the environment.

Topography: Ranges from 250 m to 2,650 m in altitude. About 80% of the flowering plants of the Western Ghats are found here.

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

Location: Uttarakhand, including parts of Chamoli, Almora, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts.

Forest Types: Primarily temperate forests.

Key Species: Silver weed and orchids like latifolie and rhododendron.

Fauna: Includes snow leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk deer, snowcock, golden eagle, and black eagle.

Threats: Collection of endangered medicinal plants, forest fires, and poaching.

Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve

Location: Swampy delta of the river Ganga in West Bengal.

Area: Approximately 9,630 sq. km.

Habitat: Consists of mangrove forests, swamps, and forested islands.

Wildlife: Home to the Royal Bengal tiger (nearly 200 individuals), known for its swimming ability. It also shelters a variety of birds (over 170 species) and marine life.

Vegetation: Characterized by Heritiera fomes (Sundari tree), valued for its timber.

Gulf Of Mannar Biosphere Reserve

Location: Southeast coast of India, covering 105,000 hectares. Extends from Rameswaram island to Kaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu.

Biodiversity: One of the world's richest marine biodiversity regions, comprising 21 islands with estuaries, beaches, nearshore forests, sea grasses, coral reefs, salt marshes, and mangroves.

Notable Species: Home to 3,600 plant and animal species, including the globally endangered sea cow (Dugong dugon). It also contains six mangrove species endemic to Peninsular India that are endangered.