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Chapter 3 Human Development
The story of Rekha at the beginning of the chapter highlights a significant paradox of modern development in India: the coexistence of progress and deprivation.
Rekha's journey from a rural background with limited opportunities and dependency to exposure to a large city like Delhi revealed stark contrasts – alongside modern infrastructure and facilities, she witnessed widespread poverty, slums, congestion, crime, pollution, and lack of basic services for many.
This raises critical questions: Does development benefit only certain segments of the population? Does it create disparities between the 'haves' and 'have-nots'? Can development and underdevelopment exist side-by-side?
Development, in the context of these paradoxes, is a complex issue. While it can bring rapid improvements for some (modernisation, comfort, affluence, advanced technology, and services), this often occurs alongside large-scale ecological degradation and persistent poverty and malnutrition for others, suggesting that development may sometimes be class-biased.
The conventional view of development, often seen as 'freedom' associated with modernisation and affluence (e.g., computerisation, industrialisation, efficient transport, advanced healthcare, safety), can be a partial, potentially Euro-centric perspective.
For countries like India, with a history of colonialism, marginalisation, social discrimination, and regional imbalances, development has another facet – one involving neglect and deprivation for large sections of society.
While metropolitan centres and developed areas may have modern facilities for a small elite, vast rural areas and urban slums frequently lack basic amenities like clean water, education, and healthcare for the majority.
Marginalized groups, including Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, landless labourers, poor farmers, and slum dwellers, are disproportionately affected, often seeing their conditions worsen over time.
Another interconnected issue is the environmental degradation caused by development, leading to ecological crises like air, soil, water, and noise pollution. This not only impacts shared natural resources (a 'tragedy of the commons') but also threatens the fundamental conditions for human survival and well-being.
The environmental crisis directly affects human conditions, particularly for the poor, who experience a decline in various capabilities:
- Social Capabilities: Weakened social ties and displacement due to development projects.
- Environmental Capabilities: Reduced ability to thrive due to pollution.
- Personal Capabilities: Increased susceptibility to diseases and accidents.
These factors negatively impact their quality of life and overall human development.
Based on these observations, it can be argued that current development models often fail to address social injustice, regional disparities, and environmental problems. In fact, they are often seen as contributing to these crises.
This critique led to the emergence of the concept of human development as a distinct alternative to the conventional Western view that development itself is the solution to societal problems.
The first systematic effort to view development critically through a human-centric lens was the publication of the first Human Development Report (HDR) by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990. Since then, the UNDP has published the HDR annually, defining and refining the concept, indicators, and ranking countries based on their progress.
According to the HDR 1993, increasing democratisation and empowering people are seen as essential minimum conditions for human development. The report emphasized that "development must be woven around people, not the people around development."
What is Human Development?
Human development is defined as a process focused on enlarging people's choices and expanding their opportunities, particularly in areas like education, healthcare, income generation, and empowerment.
It encompasses a wide spectrum of human freedoms and opportunities, ranging from having a healthy environment to enjoying economic, social, and political freedom.
Expanding people's choices is considered the most critical aspect of human development. While choices can be diverse, certain aspects are viewed as non-negotiable fundamentals, such as the ability to live a long and healthy life, gain education, access resources for a decent standard of living, exercise political freedom, have guaranteed human rights, and maintain personal self-respect.
Human Development In India
India, with its large population, is classified among countries with medium human development.
According to the UNDP Human Development Report 2018, India's Human Development Index (HDI) value was 0.640, placing it at rank 130 out of 189 countries.
| Country | HDI value (2018) | Rank (2018) |
|---|---|---|
| Norway | 0.953 | 1 |
| Germany | 0.936 | 5 |
| USA | 0.924 | 13 |
| UK | 0.922 | 14 |
| Russian Fed. | 0.816 | 49 |
| Malaysia | 0.802 | 57 |
| Sri Lanka | 0.770 | 76 |
| Brazil | 0.759 | 79 |
| China | 0.752 | 86 |
| Egypt | 0.696 | 115 |
| Indonesia | 0.694 | 116 |
| South Africa | 0.699 | 113 |
| India | 0.640 | 130 |
| Bangladesh | 0.600 | 136 |
| Pakistan | 0.562 | 150 |
While a low HDI score is concerning, some critics point out limitations in the standard HDI approach and indicators. They argue it may not adequately capture the impact of historical factors (like colonialism), socio-cultural issues (human rights violations, discrimination based on race, religion, gender, caste), social problems (crime, terrorism, war), and political factors (governance style, level of empowerment), which are particularly relevant for countries like India.
Inspired by the UNDP's work, the Planning Commission of India (now NITI Aayog) has also prepared Human Development Reports for India, using states and Union Territories as the units of analysis. Subsequently, individual state governments began preparing their own HDRs, often using districts as the analytical units.
Although the national HDI calculation by the Planning Commission uses the standard three dimensions (health, education, access to resources), the Indian HDRs also explore other indicators like economic attainment, social empowerment, social distributive justice, accessibility, hygiene, and welfare measures.
Indicators Of Economic Attainments
Economic well-being and human development are closely linked to a country's resource base and people's access to those resources, especially for the poor and marginalized.
Traditionally, measures like Gross National Product (GNP) and per capita income were used to assess a country's economic resource endowment.
Economic attainment for individuals depends on overall economic growth, job availability, and ownership of assets.
India has seen an increase in per capita income and consumption over the years, contributing to a decline in the proportion of people living below the poverty line.
According to 2011-12 estimates, the percentage of population below the poverty line was 25.7% in rural areas, 13.7% in urban areas, and 21.9% for the country as a whole.
Significant state-level variations exist:
- States with over 30% population below the poverty line in 2011-12 included Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
- States with 10-20% poverty included Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, and West-Bengal.
- States/UTs with below 10% poverty included Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab, Sikkim, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Daman and Diu, and Lakshadweep.
| State | % of Population below poverty line |
|---|---|
| Andhra Pradesh | 9.20 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 34.67 |
| Assam | 31.98 |
| Bihar | 33.74 |
| Chhattisgarh | 39.93 |
| Delhi | 9.91 |
| Goa | 5.09 |
| Gujarat | 16.63 |
| Haryana | 11.16 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 8.06 |
| Jammu & Kashmir | 10.35 |
| Jharkhand | 36.96 |
| Karnataka | 20.91 |
| Kerala | 7.05 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 31.65 |
| Maharashtra | 17.35 |
| Manipur | 36.89 |
| Meghalaya | 11.87 |
| Mizoram | 20.40 |
| Nagaland | 18.88 |
| Odisha | 32.59 |
| Punjab | 8.26 |
| Rajasthan | 14.71 |
| Sikkim | 8.19 |
| Tamil Nadu | 11.28 |
| Tripura | 14.05 |
| Uttarakhand | 11.26 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 29.43 |
| West Bengal | 19.98 |
| Puducherry | 9.69 |
| Andaman & Nicobar Islands | 1.00 |
| Chandigarh | 21.81 |
| Dadra & Nagar Haveli | 39.31 |
| Daman & Diu | 9.86 |
| Lakshadweep | 2.77 |
| All India | 21.92 |
Poverty is defined as a state of deprivation, reflecting an individual's inability to meet basic needs required for a healthy and productive life.
A country's GDP alone does not fully capture the quality of life; factors like access to housing, public transport, clean air, and safe drinking water are also crucial. High incidence of poverty in India can be linked to issues like jobless growth and unemployment.
Indicators Of A Healthy Life
Indicators of a healthy life include freedom from illness and the ability to live a reasonably long life. Key measures involve access to pre and post-natal healthcare (reducing infant and maternal mortality), availability of old age care, adequate nutrition, and personal safety.
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM):
Environmental pollution from industrial and urban waste, along with open defecation, creates significant health hazards. The Government of India launched the Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission) as a flagship program to address these issues and promote a pollution-free environment.
SBM aims to improve public health by ensuring clean surroundings, particularly clean air, water, and reduced noise pollution. Objectives include:
- Eliminating open defecation nationwide.
- Achieving 100% scientific management of municipal solid waste.
- Promoting construction and use of household, community, and public toilets.
- Providing clean energy fuel (LPG) in rural areas to reduce indoor air pollution from traditional cooking fuels.
- Ensuring access to safe drinking water for all households to prevent water-borne diseases.
- Encouraging the use of renewable energy sources like wind and solar power.
Indicators Of Social Empowerment
The concept that "Development is freedom" implies freedom from various forms of oppression, including hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy, and other forms of domination.
True freedom and human development are achieved through the empowerment of people and their active participation in utilizing their capabilities and choices within society.
Access to knowledge about one's society and environment is fundamental to achieving freedom. Literacy is considered the foundational step towards accessing this world of knowledge and empowerment.
India's literacy rates reveal important patterns and disparities.
| State | Total literacy (%) | Female literacy (%) |
|---|---|---|
| India | 74.04 | 65.46 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 68.74 | 58.01 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 83.78 | 76.60 |
| Punjab | 76.68 | 71.34 |
| Chandigarh | 86.43 | 81.38 |
| Uttarakhand | 79.63 | 70.70 |
| Haryana | 76.64 | 66.77 |
| NCT of Delhi | 86.34 | 80.93 |
| Rajasthan | 67.06 | 52.66 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 69.72 | 59.26 |
| Bihar | 63.82 | 53.33 |
| Sikkim | 82.20 | 76.43 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 66.95 | 59.57 |
| Nagaland | 80.11 | 76.69 |
| Manipur | 79.85 | 73.17 |
| Mizoram | 91.58 | 89.40 |
| Tripura | 87.75 | 83.15 |
| Meghalaya | 75.48 | 73.78 |
| Assam | 73.18 | 67.27 |
| West Bengal | 77.08 | 71.16 |
| Jharkhand | 67.63 | 56.21 |
| Orissa | 73.45 | 64.36 |
| Chhattisgarh | 71.04 | 60.59 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 70.63 | 60.02 |
| Gujarat | 79.31 | 70.73 |
| Daman & Diu | 87.07 | 79.59 |
| Dadra and Nagar Haveli | 77.65 | 65.93 |
| Maharashtra | 82.91 | 75.48 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 67.66 | 59.74 |
| Karnataka | 75.60 | 68.13 |
| Goa | 87.40 | 81.84 |
| Lakshadweep Is. | 92.28 | 88.25 |
| Kerala | 93.91 | 91.98 |
| Tamil Nadu | 80.33 | 73.86 |
| Puducherry | 86.55 | 81.22 |
| Andaman & Nicobar Is. | 86.27 | 81.84 |
Key findings regarding literacy in India (2011):
- India's overall literacy rate was around 74.04%, while female literacy was lower at 65.46%.
- Southern Indian states generally have literacy rates (both total and female) higher than the national average.
- Significant regional disparities exist in literacy rates across India. Bihar has a very low literacy rate (63.82%), while states like Kerala (93.91%) and Mizoram (91.58%) have much higher rates.
Apart from geographical variations, literacy rates are considerably lower in rural areas and among marginalized groups (females, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, agricultural labourers).
Although literacy rates among marginalized sections have improved, the gap in literacy between richer and marginalized populations has widened over the years.
Human Development Index in India (State-wise):
The Planning Commission calculated the HDI for Indian states and UTs using standard indicators.
| State | HDI Value 2007-08 | Rank 2007-08 |
|---|---|---|
| Kerala | 0.790 | 1 |
| Delhi | 0.750 | 2 |
| Himachal Pradesh | 0.652 | 3 |
| Goa | 0.617 | 4 |
| Punjab | 0.605 | 5 |
| NE (excluding Assam) | 0.573 | 6 |
| Maharashtra | 0.572 | 7 |
| Tamil Nadu | 0.570 | 8 |
| Haryana | 0.552 | 9 |
| Jammu and Kashmir | 0.529 | 10 |
| Gujarat | 0.527 | 11 |
| Karnataka | 0.519 | 12 |
| West Bengal | 0.492 | 13 |
| Uttarakhand | 0.490 | 14 |
| Andhra Pradesh | 0.473 | 15 |
| Assam | 0.444 | 16 |
| Rajasthan | 0.434 | 17 |
| Uttar Pradesh | 0.380 | 18 |
| Jharkhand | 0.376 | 19 |
| Madhya Pradesh | 0.375 | 20 |
| Bihar | 0.367 | 21 |
| Orissa | 0.362 | 22 |
| Chhattisgarh | 0.358 | 23 |
Kerala ranked highest among Indian states in HDI (0.790 in 2007-08), followed by Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Goa, and Punjab.
States like Bihar, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh were at the bottom of the list of major states, indicating lower levels of human development.
India has made progress in some health indicators. Death rate declined from 25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 6.5 in 2015. Infant mortality fell from 148 per thousand to 37 in the same period. Life expectancy at birth increased for both males (37.1 to 66.9 years) and females (36.2 to 70 years) between 1951 and 2015. Birth rate also decreased from 40.8 to 20.8 during this time, although it remains higher than in many developed nations.
However, significant challenges remain, particularly regarding gender-specific and rural-urban health disparities. India has experienced a concerning decline in the female sex ratio. The 2011 Census showed a particularly alarming decline in the child sex ratio (0-6 years) across almost all states except Kerala, with the lowest ratios observed in developed states like Haryana and Punjab (below 850 female children per thousand male children). This decline is often linked to social attitudes favouring males and practices like sex-selective abortions.
High literacy rates are crucial for social empowerment and directly contribute to higher HDI values. Kerala's high HDI rank is largely attributed to its near 100% literacy achievement.
States with low literacy rates, such as Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Assam, and Uttar Pradesh, tend to have lower HDI values.
States with higher overall literacy often exhibit smaller gaps between male and female literacy rates.
Beyond education, economic development levels also strongly influence HDI. Economically advanced states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Haryana generally have higher HDI values compared to less economically developed states like Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.
Historical factors like regional distortions and social disparities that arose during the colonial era continue to impact India's economy, society, and politics.
The Indian government has attempted to promote balanced development with a focus on social distributive justice through planning, achieving progress, though not yet at the desired level.
Population, Environment And Development
Development, especially human development, is a complex concept. Historically, it was seen as a fixed goal that, once achieved, would solve societal problems. However, while development has improved quality of life in some ways, it has also led to increased regional and social inequalities, discrimination, displacement, human rights abuses, and environmental degradation.
Recognizing these issues, the UNDP's 1993 HDR emphasized the importance of people's participation and security in human development, advocating for progressive democratization and empowerment as minimum requirements. It also highlighted the role of 'Civil Societies' in promoting peace and human development, urging for reduced military spending and a shift from defense to producing basic goods and services.
In contrast, some perspectives, influenced by Neo-Malthusians and environmentalists, argue that maintaining a balance between population size and available resources is essential for societal well-being. They contend that while resources have expanded marginally, human population has grown phenomenally since the 18th century, leading to a widening gap. Development, from this viewpoint, has exacerbated the problem by increasing resource consumption without ensuring equitable distribution or sustainability.
This perspective suggests that the core task of development should be to balance population and resources.
However, critics argue that resources are not neutral and their distribution is often unequal, with rich nations and individuals having disproportionate access. The relentless pursuit and control of resources by powerful entities are seen as major causes of conflict and the apparent tension between population, resources, and development.
Indian cultural and philosophical traditions have long recognized the need for balance and harmony between humans and nature. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized reinforcing this harmony, expressing concerns about industrialization's negative impacts on morality, spirituality, self-reliance, non-violence, cooperation, and the environment.
Gandhi advocated for individual austerity, the idea of social wealth as a trust to be managed for the community, and non-violence as principles for achieving higher goals for individuals and nations. These ideas resonate with international reports like "Limits to Growth" (1972), Schumacher's "Small is Beautiful" (1974), the Brundtland Commission's "Our Common Future" (1987), and "Agenda 21" from the 1993 Rio Conference, all advocating for more sustainable and equitable development paths.
Exercises
This section contains exercises designed to test students' understanding of the concepts related to human development as discussed in the chapter, including its definition, indicators, challenges, and spatial variations in India.
Choose The Right Answers Of The Followings From The Given Options
Multiple-choice questions covering key facts and data points regarding India's human development status and related indicators.
Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words.
Short answer questions requiring brief definitions and explanations of specific concepts like human development, reasons for low development in certain regions, and factors behind the declining child sex ratio.
Answer The Following Questions In About 150 Words.
More detailed questions prompting discussions and analysis of topics such as the spatial patterns and causes of female literacy variations and the factors contributing to regional differences in human development levels across Indian states.