Chapter 7 Mineral And Energy Resources

India is fortunate to have a diverse range of mineral resources, largely due to its complex and varied geological history, particularly the ancient geological structures of the peninsular region.

Most valuable minerals are found in very old rock formations, typically predating the Palaeozoic era, and are primarily associated with the metamorphic and igneous rocks found in Peninsular India.

In contrast, the extensive alluvial plains of northern India, formed by river deposits, generally lack economically significant mineral deposits.

Mineral resources provide a fundamental base required for a country's industrial development.

A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring substance. It can be of organic origin (derived from living matter) or inorganic origin (from non-living matter), possessing distinct and specific chemical composition and physical properties.

Types Of Mineral Resources

Minerals are broadly categorized based on their chemical and physical characteristics:

Metallic Minerals: These are minerals that are sources of metals. When processed, they yield one or more metals. Examples include iron ore, copper ore, and gold ore.

• Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Contain iron. This category includes iron ore itself, as well as minerals like manganese and chromite, which are crucial for metallurgical industries, particularly in making steel.
• Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Do not contain iron. Examples include bauxite (the ore for aluminium), copper, lead, zinc, and gold.

Non-metallic Minerals: These minerals do not contain metals. They are used in various industries for their physical or chemical properties.

• Organic Non-metallic Minerals (Mineral Fuels): Formed from the remains of buried plants and animals over geological time. These are fossil fuels. Examples are coal, petroleum (crude oil), and natural gas, which are primary sources of energy.
• Inorganic Non-metallic Minerals: Formed from inorganic processes. Examples include mica, limestone, dolomite, graphite, salt, and precious stones.

Minerals share some common characteristics:

• Uneven Distribution: Minerals are not found uniformly across the Earth's surface; they are concentrated in specific geological formations and regions.
• Inverse Quality-Quantity Relationship: Generally, minerals of higher quality (higher concentration of the desired substance) are found in smaller quantities, while lower quality minerals are more abundant.
• Exhaustibility: All minerals are finite and non-renewable resources from a human perspective. They form over geological timescales (millions of years) and cannot be quickly replenished once extracted. Therefore, they must be used judiciously and conserved.

Distribution Of Minerals In India

In India, most metallic minerals are concentrated in the ancient crystalline rocks of the Peninsular Plateau region.

A significant majority (over 97%) of coal reserves are found within the river valleys of the Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari rivers.

Petroleum reserves are located in sedimentary basins, notably in Assam, Gujarat, and the offshore Mumbai High region in the Arabian Sea. More recently, new oil and gas reserves have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins along the east coast.

Generally, the major mineral resources in India are concentrated to the east of an imaginary line connecting Mangaluru (on the west coast) and Kanpur (in Uttar Pradesh).

Minerals in India are primarily concentrated in three broad geographical belts:

The North-Eastern Plateau Region

This is the richest mineral belt in India, covering the Chhotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand), parts of the Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and Chhattisgarh. This region is a major hub for iron and steel industries due to its vast mineral resources.

Minerals found here include iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica.

The South-Western Plateau Region

This belt spans across Karnataka, Goa, the adjacent uplands of Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. It is particularly rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.

It contains high-grade iron ore, manganese, and limestone.

However, this belt is less diversified in minerals compared to the northeastern belt and lacks significant coal deposits, except for lignite at Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.

Kerala is known for deposits of monazite and thorium (important for nuclear energy), and bauxite clay. Goa has significant iron ore deposits.

The North-Western Region

This belt runs along the Aravali Range in Rajasthan and extends into parts of Gujarat. Minerals here are mainly associated with the Dharwar geological system.

Major minerals found include copper and zinc.

Rajasthan is well-known for its abundant building stones such as sandstone, granite, and marble. Extensive deposits of gypsum and Fuller’s earth are also present. Dolomite and limestone deposits in this region serve as raw materials for the cement industry.

Gujarat has notable petroleum deposits.

Both Gujarat and Rajasthan are rich sources of salt, derived from inland lakes or coastal areas.

The Himalayan belt is another region where minerals like copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten are known to occur, found in both the eastern and western parts of the range.

The Assam valley contains mineral oil deposits.

Significant offshore oil resources are located near the Mumbai coast (Mumbai High) and more recently discovered off the east coast in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

Ferrous Mineral

Ferrous minerals are those metallic minerals that contain iron. They are crucial for the development of metallurgical industries, particularly the iron and steel industry, as they provide a strong foundation.

India is well-endowed with ferrous mineral resources in terms of both reserves and production capacity.

Iron Ore

India possesses substantial resources of iron ore and holds the largest reserves in Asia.

The primary types of iron ore found in India are haematite and magnetite. Haematite is highly valued in the international market due to its superior quality.

About 95% of India's total iron ore reserves are concentrated in the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Key iron ore mining regions:

• Odisha: Deposits are found in hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, and Jhar districts. Important mines include Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu (Kendujhar), and Bonai (Sundergarh).
• Jharkhand: Has some of India's oldest iron ore mines, with many iron and steel plants located nearby. Important mines like Noamundi and Gua are in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts.
• Chhattisgarh: The belt extends from Jharkhand into Durg, Dantewara, and Bailadila districts. Dalli and Rajhara in Durg district are key mining areas.
• Karnataka: Deposits are located in the Sandur-Hospet area (Ballari district), Baba Budan hills, and Kudremukh (Chikkamagaluru district), as well as parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg, and Tumakuru districts.
• Goa: Emerged as an important producer of iron ore.
• Other states with iron mining regions include Chandrapur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri (Maharashtra); Karimnagar and Warangal (Telangana); Kurnool, Cuddapah, and Anantapur (Andhra Pradesh); Salem and Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu).

Manganese

Manganese is a critical raw material used in the smelting of iron ore during steel production. It is also essential for manufacturing ferro alloys, which are used to improve steel properties.

While manganese deposits are found in various geological formations, they are predominantly associated with the Dharwar system of rocks.

Odisha is the leading producer of manganese in India. Major mines are located in the central part of the iron ore belt, particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi, and Bolangir districts.

Karnataka is another major producer, with mines in districts like Dharwar, Ballari, Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru, Shivamogga, Chitradurg, and Tumakuru.

Maharashtra is also a significant producer, with mining in Nagpur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri districts. A disadvantage here is that the mines are relatively far from major steel plants.

The manganese belt in Madhya Pradesh extends through Balaghat, Chhindwara, Nimar, Mandla, and Jhabua districts.

Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are also minor producers of manganese.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Non-ferrous metallic minerals do not contain iron. India has limited reserves of most non-ferrous metallic minerals, with the notable exception of bauxite.

Bauxite

Bauxite is the primary ore from which aluminium metal is manufactured.

Bauxite deposits in India are mainly found in tertiary deposits, often associated with laterite rocks. These occur extensively on plateaus, hill ranges of peninsular India, and in coastal areas.

Odisha is the largest producer of bauxite in India. Leading producing areas within Odisha include Kalahandi, Sambalpur, Bolangir, and Koraput.

Rich deposits are also found in the patlands (plateau areas) of Lohardaga in Jharkhand.

Other major bauxite producing states are Gujarat (major deposits in Bhavanagar and Jamnagar), Chhattisgarh (deposits in Amarkantak plateau), Madhya Pradesh (important deposits in Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat), and Maharashtra (important producers include Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune, and Kolhapur).

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Goa are minor producers of bauxite.

Copper

Copper is a highly valuable and indispensable metal, particularly in the electrical industry due to its excellent conductivity, malleability, and ductility. It is used extensively in making wires, electric motors, transformers, and generators.

Copper is also alloyed with gold to enhance the strength and durability of jewellery.

Major copper deposits in India are located in:

• Singhbhum district in Jharkhand.
• Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh.
• Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.

Minor copper producing areas include Agnigundala (Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg and Hasan districts (Karnataka), and South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).

Non-Metallic Minerals

Non-metallic minerals are those that do not yield metallic substances when processed. In India, among the various non-metallic minerals, mica is particularly important.

Other non-metallic minerals like limestone, dolomite, and phosphate are also extracted, often for local consumption or specific industries like cement.

Mica

Mica is a crucial non-metallic mineral, especially vital for the electrical and electronic industries due to its unique properties.

Mica can be easily split into very thin, flexible, and tough sheets, which are excellent electrical insulators.

Major mica producing states in India include Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan, followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.

Key mica belts:

• Jharkhand: High-quality mica is found in a belt about 150 km long and 22 km wide on the lower Hazaribagh plateau.
• Andhra Pradesh: Nellore district is renowned for producing the best quality mica.
• Rajasthan: A significant mica belt extends for about 320 km from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.

Other states with mica deposits include Mysuru and Hasan districts (Karnataka), Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai, and Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu), Alleppey (Kerala), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Purulia and Bankura (West Bengal).

Energy Resources

Energy resources are essential for generating power, which is required across all sectors of the economy – agriculture, industry, transport, and domestic use.

Mineral fuels, also known as fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas), along with minerals used for nuclear energy, are considered conventional sources of energy.

A key characteristic of conventional energy sources derived from minerals is that they are exhaustible resources; they are finite and cannot be replenished geologically within a human timescale.

Coal

Coal is one of the most important mineral fuels, primarily used for generating thermal power (electricity) and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore to produce steel.

In India, coal deposits are found mainly in rock sequences belonging to two geological ages: Gondwana and Tertiary.

About 80% of India's coal reserves are of the bituminous type, mostly non-coking grade.

The most important Gondwana coal fields are located in the Damodar Valley, forming the Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt. Key coal fields here include Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, and Karanpura. Jharia is the largest coal field, followed by Raniganj.

Coal is also found in the river valleys of the Godavari, Mahanadi, and Sone. Important mining centres in these areas include Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Talcher and Rampur (Odisha), Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee, and Bander (Maharashtra), and Singareni (Telangana) and Pandur (Andhra Pradesh).

Tertiary coals are found in northeastern states: Assam (Makum, Jaipur, Nazira), Arunachal Pradesh (Namchik–Namphuk), Meghalaya (Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong, Langrin), and Nagaland. Deposits are also found in Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir).

Brown coal or lignite, a lower grade coal, is found in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu (Neyveli is a major lignite field), Puducherry, Gujarat, and Jammu and Kashmir.

Interesting Fact: Singareni Collieries historically used canaries in underground mines to detect poisonous carbon monoxide (CO) gas. Canaries are highly sensitive to CO, showing distress and collapsing at low concentrations, providing an early warning for miners. While modern electronic detectors exist, some miners reportedly still trust the birds.

Petroleum

Crude petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous forms. It varies in chemical composition, colour, and density.

Petroleum is a crucial source of energy for internal combustion engines in transportation (automobiles, railways, aircraft). It is often referred to as liquid gold due to its scarcity and wide-ranging uses.

Numerous valuable by-products are derived from petroleum and processed in petrochemical industries, used in manufacturing fertilizers, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibres, medicines, vaseline, lubricants, wax, soaps, and cosmetics.

Crude petroleum is found in sedimentary rocks, typically from the Tertiary geological period.

Systematic oil exploration and production in India significantly increased after the establishment of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) in 1956. Before this, Digboi in Assam was the only major oil-producing region.

Major oil-producing areas in India include:

• Assam: Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran.
• Gujarat: Important oilfields include Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba, and Lunej.
• Mumbai High: A major offshore oilfield located 160 km off the coast of Mumbai, discovered in 1973, with production starting in 1976.
• Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri Basins: New oil and natural gas reserves found in exploratory drilling on the east coast.

Oil extracted from wells is crude oil and requires refining to remove impurities and process it into usable products. India has two types of oil refineries:

• Field-based Refineries: Located close to oil producing areas (e.g., Digboi refinery).
• Market-based Refineries: Located near consumer markets or transport hubs (e.g., Barauni refinery).

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a fossil fuel often found alongside petroleum deposits in oilfields. Exclusive natural gas reserves have also been identified.

The Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) was established in 1984 as a public sector company responsible for the transport and marketing of natural gas in India.

Significant natural gas reserves are located along the eastern coast (Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), in Tripura, Rajasthan, and in offshore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

While fossil fuels and nuclear energy (using specific minerals) are conventional and exhaustible energy sources, non-conventional energy sources are sustainable and renewable alternatives.

These sources are naturally replenished and include solar, wind, hydro (often considered both conventional hydro dams and non-conventional micro-hydel), geothermal, and biomass energy.

Non-conventional energy sources are generally more equitably distributed geographically than fossil fuels and are considered more environmentally friendly. Although initial setup costs can be high, they offer sustained, cheaper energy in the long run and help reduce dependence on exhaustible fuels.

Nuclear Energy Resources

Nuclear energy, derived from harnessing energy from atomic nuclei (fission or fusion), has become an important alternative energy source.

The primary minerals used for generating nuclear energy are Uranium and Thorium.

Uranium deposits are typically found in Dharwar rock formations. Notable locations for uranium ores include several sites along the Singbhum Copper belt (Jharkhand), and in districts like Udaipur, Alwar, and Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Durg (Chhattisgarh), Bhandara (Maharashtra), and Kullu (Himachal Pradesh).

Thorium is mainly extracted from minerals like monazite and ilmenite, which are found in the beach sands along the coasts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

The world's richest deposits of monazite are located in the coastal sands of Palakkad and Kollam districts in Kerala, near Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, and in the Mahanadi river delta in Odisha.

India established the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. Significant progress in nuclear energy research and development began after the establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay (Mumbai) in 1954, later renamed the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1967.

Important operational nuclear power plants (projects) in India include:

• Tarapur (Maharashtra)
• Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan)
• Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)
• Narora (Uttar Pradesh)
• Kaiga (Karnataka)
• Kakarapara (Gujarat)

Solar Energy

Solar energy is derived from tapping the energy of the sun's rays. Photovoltaic cells can directly convert sunlight into electricity, while solar thermal technology uses sunlight to generate heat, which can then be used for various applications or to produce electricity.

Solar thermal technology offers advantages like being cost-competitive, environmentally friendly, and relatively easy to construct. Solar energy systems are generally more efficient than coal/oil-based or nuclear plants in terms of energy conversion per unit of primary energy input.

Solar energy is commonly used in applications such as water heaters, crop dryers, and cookers.

The western parts of India, particularly states like Gujarat and Rajasthan, have high potential for solar energy development due to abundant sunlight.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is a clean and inexhaustible source of energy derived from the kinetic energy of blowing wind. Wind turbines convert the wind's kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Regions with consistent wind patterns, such as the trade winds, westerlies, or seasonal monsoons, are suitable for wind energy generation. Local winds like land and sea breezes can also be utilized.

India has actively developed wind energy capacity, with favourable conditions existing in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

Tidal And Wave Energy

Ocean currents, tides, and waves represent vast sources of potentially harnessable energy.

There have been efforts since the 17th-18th centuries to develop efficient systems to capture energy from tidal waves and ocean currents.

Large tidal ranges occur along India's west coast, indicating significant potential for tidal energy development, although this resource is not yet extensively utilized.

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is heat energy originating from within the Earth's interior. When magma or hot rocks are close to the surface, they release significant heat.

This heat can be tapped directly or used to heat water, creating steam or hot water that can be used to generate electricity. Hot water gushing out from geysers or hot springs can also be utilized for thermal energy generation.

Geothermal energy is considered a promising alternative energy source.

Hot springs and geysers have been used for various purposes since ancient times (e.g., bathing, heating).

In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.

Historically, one of the earliest attempts to tap underground heat was in Boise, Idaho, USA (1890), where hot water was piped for heating buildings, and this system is still operational.

Bio-Energy

Bio-energy is energy produced from biological materials (biomass). This includes agricultural waste, residues, municipal waste, industrial waste, and other organic matter.

Bio-energy is a versatile potential energy source. Biomass can be converted into electrical energy, heat, or biogas for cooking (biogas plants).

Beyond energy production, bio-energy projects also help process and manage waste and garbage, which is particularly beneficial in reducing environmental pollution and improving sanitary conditions, especially in rural and developing areas.

Promoting bio-energy can enhance self-reliance in energy for rural communities and reduce pressure on traditional fuel sources like fuelwood.

An example of a project converting municipal waste to energy is located at Okhla in Delhi.

Conservation Of Mineral Resources

Ensuring sustainable development requires integrating the pursuit of economic growth with environmental considerations, including the careful management of finite mineral resources.

Traditional methods of mineral extraction and use often generate significant waste and contribute to environmental problems.

Therefore, conserving mineral resources is crucial to protect them for future generations.

Key strategies for mineral conservation:

• Utilize Renewable Alternatives: Develop and promote the use of inexhaustible non-conventional energy sources (solar, wind, wave, geothermal) to replace exhaustible fossil fuels and nuclear minerals wherever possible.
• Recycling: For metallic minerals, recycling scrap metal is highly effective in reducing the need for mining new ore. Recycling is especially important for metals like copper, lead, and zinc, where India has limited domestic reserves.
• Substitution: Use alternative materials or substitutes for scarce metals or minerals whenever technically and economically feasible. This reduces demand for the limited resource.
• Efficient Use: Improve technologies and processes to extract and use minerals more efficiently, minimizing waste during mining and processing.
• Control Exports: Limit or reduce the export of strategic and scarce minerals to ensure that existing domestic reserves are available for use over a longer period for national needs.

Exercises

This section includes questions and exercises designed to help students review and assess their understanding of the chapter's content on mineral and energy resources in India.

Choose The Right Answers Of The Followings From The Given Options

Multiple-choice questions testing factual recall and comprehension of key information presented in the chapter.

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words.

Short answer questions requiring brief explanations or identification of specific facts and concepts discussed.

Answer The Following Questions In About 150 Words.

Longer answer questions prompting more detailed explanations and discussions on topics such as petroleum resources and hydel power in India.