Chapter 7 Nationalism

Nationalism is a powerful political ideology that has significantly shaped world affairs, inspiring both intense loyalty and deep hatred, uniting and dividing people, and contributing to liberation and conflict. It has played a major role in the formation and dissolution of empires and states, influencing boundary drawing and redrawing over the past two centuries. Today, the world is largely organized into nation-states, though separatist movements within existing states remain common.

Nationalism has evolved through various phases. In 19th-century Europe, it fueled the unification of smaller kingdoms into larger nation-states (e.g., Germany, Italy), and new states emerged in Latin America. This process consolidated state boundaries, local identities, and languages into common national loyalties and languages, giving people a new political identity based on membership in the nation-state. A similar process occurred in India over the last century.

However, nationalism also contributed to the breakup of large empires (e.g., Austro-Hungarian, Russian in early 20th century) and colonial empires (British, French, Dutch, Portuguese in Asia and Africa). Nationalist struggles for independence aimed to establish nation-states free from foreign control. The process of redefining state boundaries continues, with nationalist demands for separate statehood challenging existing states today (e.g., Quebecois in Canada, Basques in Spain, Kurds in Turkey/Iraq, Tamils in Sri Lanka). Nationalism can be used for both unifying aspirations (e.g., Arab nationalism seeking pan-Arab unity) and separatist movements seeking to divide existing states.

While acknowledging nationalism's power, defining 'nation' and 'nationalism' precisely is challenging. Questions arise: What constitutes a nation? Why do people form nations? What do nations aspire to? Why are people willing to die for their nation? How are claims to nationhood linked to statehood? Do nations have a right to statehood or national self-determination? Can national aspirations be met without separate statehood? This chapter explores these issues.

Nations And Nationalism

A nation is distinct from other forms of collective belonging like families, tribes, or clans. Unlike families (based on face-to-face relationships) or kinship groups (linked by descent), members of a nation may never meet most fellow nationals or share ties of descent. Yet, nations exist and are valued by their members. While it's often assumed nations share characteristics like descent, language, religion, or ethnicity, no single set of traits is common to all nations. Many nations are multilingual (Canada, India) or multireligious. What primarily constitutes a nation is a sense of shared identity and belonging among its members.

A nation is largely an 'imagined community', united by the collective beliefs, aspirations, and imaginations of its members. It's based on assumptions people make about the collective whole with which they identify. Let's examine some assumptions underlying the idea of a nation:

Shared Beliefs

A nation is constituted by belief; it is not a tangible entity like a mountain. To speak of a people as a nation is to refer to their collective identity and aspiration for independent political existence. Nations are like a team: a group whose members conceive of themselves as a collective unit working or playing together. A nation exists because its members believe they belong together.

History

People who see themselves as a nation possess a sense of continuous historical identity, viewing themselves as extending from the past into the future. They construct their history through collective memories, legends, and records to outline the nation's ongoing identity. Indian nationalists, for example, invoked ancient civilization and cultural heritage to claim India's long and continuous history and civilizational unity as the basis of the Indian nation. Jawaharlal Nehru noted the "tremendous impress of oneness" holding Indians together despite outward diversity, rooted in their shared past.

Territory

Nations identify with a specific territory or homeland. Sharing a common past and living together on a particular land over time fosters a sense of collective identity and helps people imagine themselves as one. The territory and land hold special significance, claimed as their own (motherland, fatherland, holy land). However, multiple groups may claim the same territory, making the aspiration for a homeland a major source of global conflict.

Shared Political Ideals

While shared history and territory contribute to unity, a shared vision of the future and the collective aspiration for independent political existence distinguish nations from other groups. Members of a nation share a vision for the kind of state they want to build, affirming values like democracy, secularism, and liberalism. These ideals define the terms under which they unite and are willing to live together, representing their political identity as a nation.

In a democracy, commitment to shared political values and ideals is the most desirable basis for a political community or nation-state. Membership entails obligations arising from recognizing each other's rights as citizens. A nation is strengthened when its people acknowledge and accept obligations to fellow members, seen as a test of loyalty.

Common Political Identity

Some believe a shared political vision is insufficient, seeking shared cultural identity (language, religion, descent) instead. Common language facilitates communication, and shared religion provides beliefs/practices. Shared customs and symbols can unite but also threaten democratic values.

Major religions are internally diverse; basing identity solely on common religion can create authoritarian societies. Most societies are culturally diverse; imposing a single identity excludes groups, restricting their liberty. To protect democratic ideals (equal treatment, liberty for all), it is preferable to define the nation politically, based on loyalty to constitutional values, rather than adherence to a particular religion, race, or language.

Nations express collective identity through various means (beliefs, history, territory, ideals). Democratic states should base this identity on shared political ideals. But why do people imagine themselves as nations, and what are their aspirations?

National Self-determination

Nations aspire to govern themselves and determine their future – the right to self-determination. This claim seeks international recognition of a nation as a distinct political entity or state. It often comes from people with a long history on a specific land and a sense of common identity, sometimes linked to protecting/privileging their culture in a new state.

The 'one culture - one state' idea gained traction in 19th-century Europe and influenced boundary redrawing after World War I (Treaty of Versailles). However, satisfying all demands was impossible. Reorganizing boundaries based on culture led to massive population migrations, displacement, and communal violence. It proved impossible to create states containing only one ethnic group; most had minorities. The problem of accommodating minorities as equal citizens persisted. The positive aspect was political recognition for groups seeing themselves as nations seeking self-governance.

National liberation movements in Asia and Africa claimed self-determination against colonial rule, asserting political independence would bring dignity, recognition, justice, rights, and prosperity. But achieving statehood for every cultural group claiming nationhood was often impossible, resulting in continued conflict, migration, and violence.

This creates a paradox: nation-states born from struggles for self-determination sometimes act against minorities within their borders who also claim this right. Almost every state faces the dilemma of dealing with self-determination movements. Increasingly, the realization is that the solution lies not in creating more states but in making existing states more democratic and equal, ensuring diverse communities coexist as partners and equal citizens. This is vital for resolving new self-determination claims and building strong, united states, as states not respecting minority rights struggle to gain loyalty.

Demand For National Self-determination In Basque

The Basque Country, a hilly, prosperous region in Spain, provides an example of a demand for national self-determination. Recognized as an 'autonomous' region within Spain, Basque nationalists seek separate statehood, using constitutional and, in the past, violent means. They assert a distinct culture, language (unrelated to Spanish, understood by only one-third of the population), and geographical uniqueness. Historically, the Basque region maintained autonomy under unique political-administrative arrangements since Roman times, resisting Spanish rulers. The modern movement grew from attempts to abolish this autonomy, particularly under the 20th-century dictator Franco, who suppressed Basque language use. While repressive measures are withdrawn, suspicion of the Spanish government persists, along with fears of 'outsider' entry. Opponents view this as a resolved issue exploited for political gain. Assessing the justification requires understanding their claims, historical context, and democratic principles of accommodating diversity within existing states versus forming new ones.

Nationalism And Pluralism

Abandoning the idea of 'one culture - one state' necessitates finding ways for diverse cultures and communities to thrive within a single country. Many democratic societies promote this through measures recognizing and protecting cultural minority identities. The Indian Constitution provides protections for religious, linguistic, and cultural minorities, granting group rights like constitutional protection for language/culture/religion and, in some cases, representation in legislative bodies. These rights ensure equal treatment and protection under law while preserving cultural identity. Granting recognition is meant to satisfy aspirations and integrate groups into the national community, requiring an inclusive definition of national identity that values the contributions of all communities.

However, despite recognition, some groups may still demand separate statehood. This occurs even as globalization increases, indicating the persistent motivation of nationalist aspirations. Addressing such demands democratically requires significant generosity and skill.

The right to national self-determination was historically seen as including the right to independent statehood. But granting statehood to every cultural group claiming nationhood is impossible and likely undesirable. It could create numerous non-viable states and multiply minority problems. The right is increasingly reinterpreted as granting democratic rights and autonomy to nationalities within an existing state.

Today, struggles for group identities, often using nationalist language, are prevalent. While acknowledging identity claims, we must prevent them from causing division and violence. Each person has multiple identities (gender, caste, religion, language, region). In a democracy, the political identity of citizen should encompass these diverse identities. People feeling free to express different aspects of their personality may not press claims for political concessions for specific identities. It is crucial to prevent the development of intolerant and homogenizing forms of identity and nationalism, which are dangerous for a diverse society.

Tagore’s Critique Of Nationalism

Rabindranath Tagore, a staunch advocate for India's independence and dignity, offered a significant critique of narrow nationalism and 'patriotism'. He believed humanity should be our ultimate refuge, not just patriotism. Tagore distinguished between opposing Western imperialism (which he did) and rejecting Western civilization entirely. While advocating for Indians to be rooted in their own culture, he encouraged learning from abroad. Tagore was critical of narrow nationalist expressions within India's independence movement, fearing that rejecting the West solely in favor of traditional Indian forms could become hostile to other influences (Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Islam) present in India. His critique warned against nationalism becoming an intolerant, exclusive force at the expense of universal humanity and the diversity within Indian society.

Exercises

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