| Non-Rationalised Civics / Political Science NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Class 12th Political Science NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A (Non-Rationalised)
Contemporay World Politics
1. The Cold War Era
This chapter discusses the period of geopolitical tension after World War II between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, known as the **Cold War**. It explores the origins of the conflict, the formation of military alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact), the arms race, and proxy wars in various regions. The chapter highlights the concept of **bipolarity** – the world divided into two power blocs. It also discusses **India's role** in the Cold War, particularly its policy of **Non-Alignment**, aiming to maintain independence in foreign policy, providing context for India's position in global politics.
2. The End Of Bipolarity
This chapter discusses the period of geopolitical tension after World War II between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, known as the **Cold War**. It explores the origins of the conflict, the formation of military alliances (NATO, Warsaw Pact), the arms race, and proxy wars in various regions. The chapter highlights the concept of **bipolarity** – the world divided into two power blocs. It also discusses **India's role** in the Cold War, particularly its policy of **Non-Alignment**, aiming to maintain independence in foreign policy, providing context for India's position in global politics.
3. Us Hegemony In World Politics
This chapter explores the concept of **hegemony**, referring to the dominance of one state in global politics. It focuses on the **hegemony of the United States** after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, leading to a unipolar world. The chapter discusses the various dimensions of US hegemony: military dominance, economic power, and cultural influence. It analyzes how the US exercises its power and the implications of this dominance for international relations and other countries, providing insight into the current structure of global power dynamics and challenges to US influence.
4. Alternative Centres Of Power
This chapter examines the emergence of **alternative centres of power** in the contemporary world, challenging the dominance of the United States after the Cold War. It discusses the rise of regional organizations and countries as significant players in global politics and economics. Examples like the **European Union (EU)** (economic and political integration), the **Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)** (regional cooperation), and the growing influence of countries like **China** (economic powerhouse) and **India** (rising economic and strategic power) are explored. These developments indicate a potential shift towards a more multipolar world order.
5. Contemporary South Asia
This chapter focuses on the political dynamics and inter-state relations in **South Asia**, a region comprising countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. It discusses the diverse political systems (democracy, military rule) and internal challenges within these countries. The chapter explores the complex relationships between South Asian nations, including conflicts (e.g., India-Pakistan tensions, Kashmir issue) and cooperation efforts (e.g., **SAARC**, SAFTA). It highlights the role of India as the largest country in the region and the challenges and prospects for peace and stability in South Asia, emphasizing regional geopolitics.
6. International Organisations
This chapter discusses the role and importance of **international organisations** in contemporary world politics. It explains how these organizations (**like the United Nations**) are formed by states to address global issues (peace, security, development, human rights) through cooperation and multilateralism. The structure and functions of the UN and its various agencies are examined. Debates around the reform of international organizations to make them more democratic, representative, and effective in addressing current global challenges (climate change, terrorism) are also explored, highlighting their significance in managing international relations and promoting global governance.
7. Security In The Contemporary World
This chapter explores the concept of **security** in the contemporary world, expanding beyond traditional military threats. It discusses different dimensions of security, including military security (protection from external aggression) and non-traditional security threats such as **terrorism**, poverty, health epidemics (e.g., pandemics), climate change, and migration. The chapter highlights how these threats affect not just states but also individuals and communities. It discusses different approaches to security, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies involving international cooperation to address the complex range of threats faced by states and people today.
8. Environment And Natural Resources
This chapter addresses the growing importance of **environmental concerns** and the management of **natural resources** in contemporary world politics. It discusses global environmental issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution, and resource depletion, which transcend national borders and require international cooperation. The chapter explores the politics surrounding environmental issues, including debates between developed and developing countries on responsibilities and historical contributions to climate change. It highlights the role of international agreements, environmental movements, and sustainable development initiatives in addressing these challenges, recognizing that environmental sustainability is crucial for global peace and security, impacting countries like India significantly.
9. Globalisation
This chapter discusses **globalisation**, the increasing interconnectedness of the world through accelerated flows of capital, commodities, technology, people, and ideas across national borders. It explores the economic, political, and cultural dimensions of globalisation and its potential consequences. The chapter examines the debate around globalisation, including its perceived benefits (economic growth, spread of technology, cultural exchange) and drawbacks (increased inequality, cultural homogenisation, impact on sovereignty). It highlights how globalisation affects different countries and social groups differently, and discusses resistance to globalisation. Understanding this complex phenomenon is crucial for analyzing contemporary global politics and its impact on countries like India.
Politics In India Since Independence
1. Challenges Of Nation Building
This chapter explores the formidable **challenges** faced by **India** immediately after gaining **independence** in 1947. It discusses the difficult task of nation-building in a vast and diverse country, including the issues arising from **Partition** (mass displacement, violence, rehabilitation) and the integration of over 500 **Princely States** (e.g., Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir, Manipur) into the Indian Union. The chapter highlights the efforts made by leaders like Sardar Patel in achieving political unity and the subsequent challenge of reorganizing states on linguistic lines, showcasing the initial hurdles in establishing a cohesive and unified nation-state in India.
2. Era Of One-Party Dominance
This chapter examines the period after Indian independence (1947-1967) characterized by the **dominance of the Indian National Congress** party in national and state politics. It discusses the reasons for Congress's dominance, including its legacy from the freedom struggle, strong leadership (e.g., Jawaharlal Nehru), and nationwide organization. The chapter explores the nature of this dominance in a democratic framework, comparing it with one-party rule in non-democratic countries, and highlights the role of opposition parties despite their limited electoral success. Understanding this era is crucial for analyzing the foundations and early evolution of India's multi-party democratic system.
3. Politics Of Planned Development
This chapter discusses **India's early development strategy** based on **planning**. It explains the rationale behind adopting planned development after independence to address poverty, inequality, and achieve rapid industrialization and economic growth. The role of the **Planning Commission** and the objectives of the initial **Five-Year Plans** (e.g., focus on agriculture, heavy industries) are explored. The chapter discusses the debate between different models of development and India's choice of a **mixed economy**. It highlights major outcomes of planned development like the Green Revolution but also challenges faced, such as inefficiencies and regional disparities.
4. India’S External Relations
This chapter explores **India's foreign policy** and its engagement with the world since independence. It discusses the principles guiding India's external relations, such as **Non-Alignment** during the Cold War (India not joining either bloc), peaceful coexistence, anti-colonialism, and Afro-Asian unity. The chapter examines India's relations with major powers (USA, USSR/Russia, China), its immediate neighbouring countries (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka), and its role in international organizations (like the UN). It highlights key events, challenges (e.g., wars with Pakistan and China), and policies that have shaped India's position and influence in global affairs.
5. Challenges To And Restoration Of The Congress System
This chapter discusses the period in Indian politics (late 1960s-1970s) when the dominant position of the **Congress party** faced significant **challenges**. It explores the reasons for the decline in Congress's electoral fortunes after Nehru's era, including internal factionalism, opposition unity, and changing social dynamics. The chapter examines key elections (e.g., 1967 general election) that saw reduced Congress majority and the subsequent split in the party. It also discusses the strategies and leadership (Indira Gandhi's role) that led to the **restoration of the Congress system** in the early 1970s, highlighting a period of political flux.
6. The Crisis Of Democratic Order
This chapter examines a period of intense political turmoil and constitutional challenge in India during the 1970s. It discusses the events leading to the declaration of the **National Emergency** in June 1975, including political agitations (e.g., Jayaprakash Narayan's movement) and conflicts between the government and the judiciary. The chapter explores the consequences of the Emergency, such as the suspension of fundamental rights, political repression, and censorship. It highlights the subsequent restoration of democratic processes after the Emergency was lifted, showcasing the resilience of Indian democracy and the challenges it has faced.
7. Rise Of Popular Movements
This chapter explores the emergence and significance of **popular movements** in post-Congress system politics in India. It discusses various social and political movements that arose from different sections of society to voice grievances and demand rights, often outside formal political parties. Examples of movements include environmental movements (e.g., Chipko Movement), caste-based movements (e.g., Dalit movements), women's movements, peasant movements, and movements for regional autonomy. The chapter highlights how these movements represent popular participation, challenge existing power structures, influence policy decisions, and contribute to deepening democracy in India, reflecting the dynamic nature of its political landscape.
8. Regional Aspirations
This chapter explores the emergence and significance of **regional aspirations** and movements within the Indian federal structure since independence. It discusses how diverse regional identities, languages, cultures, and demands for autonomy or statehood have influenced Indian politics. Examples of regional movements in different parts of India (e.g., Punjab, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, movements for new states) are discussed. The chapter highlights how the Indian political system has responded to these aspirations, attempting to balance regional demands with the need for national unity and integration within a federal framework, showcasing the complex dynamics of centre-state relations and regional identity in India.
9. Recent Developments In Indian Politics
This chapter discusses significant political developments in India from the late 1980s onwards. It explores the decline of the dominant Congress system and the rise of **coalition politics** at the national level, marking a shift towards multi-party competition. The chapter discusses the emergence of new political forces and issues, such as the Mandal issue (reservations for OBCs), the rise of Hindutva politics and the BJP, and the challenges of liberalisation and globalisation impacting domestic politics. It highlights the changing political landscape, key trends, and challenges shaping contemporary Indian politics, providing an overview of the recent political history of the country.