| Non-Rationalised Civics / Political Science NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Chapter 5 Challenges To And Restoration Of The Congress System
This chapter picks up the narrative from Chapter Two, focusing on the period from the 1960s onwards when the dominance of the Congress system faced significant challenges. As political competition intensified, the Congress found it difficult to maintain its preeminent position, facing stronger opposition from other parties and internal divisions. The chapter explores:
- The political transition following Jawaharlal Nehru's death.
- How the unity of the opposition and a crucial split within the Congress challenged its dominance.
- How a 'new' Congress led by Indira Gandhi overcame these challenges.
- How new policies and ideologies contributed to a form of Congress restoration.
This R. K. Laxman cartoon uses the original Congress election symbol (a pair of bullocks) to depict a head-on confrontation between two factions, symbolizing the major split within the Congress party that occurred 22 years after independence.
Challenge Of Political Succession
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru passed away in May 1964 after a period of illness. His death raised not only the usual question of succession ("after Nehru, who?") but, more significantly for a newly independent nation like India, the question of its democratic survival ("after Nehru, what?"). Many outside observers doubted whether India's democratic experiment could withstand the challenge of a political succession, fearing it might lead to military rule, as seen in some other post-colonial countries. The 1960s were often labeled the 'dangerous decade' due to concerns that unresolved issues like poverty, inequality, and social divisions could destabilize democracy or even lead to national disintegration.
Lal Bahadur Shastri became India's Prime Minister after Nehru's death, symbolizing a smooth and unexpected succession in the country's nascent democracy.
Information about The Guardian editorial quote:
This quote from a London newspaper's editorial highlights the widespread doubt among external observers about India's ability to manage a political succession democratically after Nehru, comparing the situation to leadership changes in developed democracies and suggesting India might face instability.
From Nehru To Shastri
Contrary to the fears, the succession after Nehru was remarkably smooth. K. Kamraj, the Congress party president, consulted party leaders and MPs and found consensus in favor of **Lal Bahadur Shastri**. Shastri was unanimously chosen as the leader of the Congress parliamentary party and became the next Prime Minister. A non-controversial leader from Uttar Pradesh, he had served in Nehru's cabinet and was known for his simplicity and integrity. He had previously resigned as Railway Minister accepting moral responsibility for an accident, demonstrating his commitment to principles.
Shastri's brief Prime Ministership (1964-1966) was challenging. India was still recovering from the economic impact of the 1962 war with China and faced a severe food crisis due to failed monsoons and drought. Additionally, the country faced a war with Pakistan in 1965. Shastri's popular slogan **'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan'** ('Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer') encapsulated India's resolve to address both military threats and food scarcity.
Shastri's term ended abruptly with his sudden death in Tashkent, USSR (Uzbekistan), on 10 January 1966, where he had gone to sign a peace agreement with Pakistan's President Ayub Khan.
From Shastri To Indira Gandhi
Following Shastri's death, the Congress faced the challenge of succession for the second time in two years. This time, there was an intense contest between **Morarji Desai** (former Chief Minister of Bombay and Union Minister) and **Indira Gandhi** (Nehru's daughter, former Congress President, and Union Minister). The party's senior leaders initially supported Indira Gandhi, though not unanimously. The contest was decided by a secret ballot among Congress MPs, in which Indira Gandhi defeated Morarji Desai, securing over two-thirds of the votes. This peaceful transfer of power, despite competition, was seen as a sign of India's democratic maturity.
This R. K. Laxman cartoon portrays Indira Gandhi being assisted by senior Congress leaders as she takes on the role of Prime Minister after Shastri's death, possibly hinting at the expectation among some leaders that she would rely on their guidance due to her perceived inexperience.
Indira Gandhi, though politically active, had limited ministerial experience. Senior Congress leaders who supported her may have expected her to be dependent on them. However, she soon began asserting her independence. She appointed advisors from outside the party and gradually sidelined the senior leadership group known as the 'Syndicate'.
Facing challenges from within (the Syndicate) and the need to regain public support after the party's losses in 1967 due to economic problems, Indira Gandhi adopted a bold strategy. She framed the power struggle within the party as an **ideological conflict** and launched policies with a distinct **Left orientation**. In May 1967, the Congress Working Committee adopted a Ten Point Programme that included measures like social control of banks, nationalization of general insurance, urban property/income ceilings, public food grain distribution, and land reforms. While the Syndicate formally approved, they had reservations. Indira Gandhi's initiatives aimed to build her own political support base, particularly among the disadvantaged sections of society.
Fourth General Elections, 1967
The year **1967** is a pivotal year in India's political history, marking significant changes in the dominance of the Congress party, which had held sway since 1952. The fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, held in February 1967, saw this trend altered.
Context Of The Elections
The elections took place amidst a challenging backdrop:
- Two Prime Ministers had died in quick succession.
- The new Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, was relatively inexperienced and had been in office for less than a year.
- India was facing a severe **economic crisis** resulting from consecutive monsoon failures, widespread drought, declining agricultural/industrial production and exports, food shortages, depletion of foreign exchange reserves, and increased military expenditure after the wars.
Adding to the economic woes, the government's decision to **devalue the Indian rupee** (making it cost more than $\textsf{₹}7$ per US dollar, up from less than $\textsf{₹}5$) under perceived pressure from the US, triggered price rises and fueled public discontent. Protests (bandhs, hartals) erupted across the country against rising prices, food scarcity, unemployment, and the overall economic condition. The government's handling of these protests as law and order issues rather than addressing the underlying problems further increased public bitterness and unrest.
The period also saw struggles launched by socialist and communist parties for greater equality. Some communist groups, notably the CPI(M-L), engaged in armed agrarian struggles. There were also instances of Hindu-Muslim riots.
Information about Election in a Rajasthan Village:
This story illustrates how national elections, like the 1967 assembly election, played out at the local level, often intertwined with existing village political dynamics and factional rivalries (here, between an uncle and nephew). It shows how local leaders leveraged connections with state-level leaders and political parties (Congress, Swatantra) to advance local interests (getting a friend nominated, securing a minister's contact for village development), demonstrating the bottom-up influence on electoral politics despite the national parties' presence. The story highlights the strategic alliances formed across traditional lines (Rajputs and non-Rajputs) and the role of personality and local influence in determining electoral outcomes in specific constituencies.
Non-Congressism
The context of public discontent and the perceived inexperience of Indira Gandhi, along with internal divisions within the Congress, presented an opportunity for opposition parties. Recognizing that their vote share was fragmented, allowing Congress to win seats despite not having a majority of popular votes, parties opposed to Congress decided to unite.
Disparate opposition parties, despite ideological differences, formed **anti-Congress fronts** in some states and made electoral adjustments (seat sharing) in others to avoid splitting the non-Congress vote. The socialist leader **Ram Manohar Lohia** championed this strategy, terming it **'non-Congressism'**. He provided a theoretical justification, arguing that Congress rule was undemocratic and against the interests of the poor, making the unity of non-Congress parties necessary to restore democracy for the people.
Information about Ram Manohar Lohia:
Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1967) was a prominent socialist leader, thinker, and freedom fighter. A founder of the Congress Socialist Party, he later led the Socialist Party and Samyukta Socialist Party. A sharp critic of Nehru, he advocated the strategy of non-Congressism, reservation for backward castes, and opposed the use of English. He was a significant figure in shaping non-Congress politics in India.
Electoral Verdict
The fourth general elections in February 1967, held amidst heightened popular discontent and political polarization, delivered a significant blow to the Congress. While the Congress managed to secure a **majority in the Lok Sabha**, its tally of seats and share of votes were the lowest since 1952. Half of Indira Gandhi's cabinet ministers were defeated, and several prominent Congress stalwarts lost their constituencies.
This map illustrating the outcome of the 1967 general elections clearly shows the significant decline in the Congress party's dominance, highlighting the states where non-Congress parties came to power for the first time.
The 'political earthquake' was even more evident at the **State level**. Congress lost its majority in seven states and was prevented from forming governments in two others due to defections. These nine states included Punjab, Haryana, UP, MP, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madras (Tamil Nadu), and Kerala. In Madras State, the regional party **Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)** won a clear majority, marking the first time a non-Congress party formed a government with its own majority in any state. The DMK had led massive anti-Hindi agitations earlier. In the other eight states, **coalition governments** comprising various non-Congress parties were formed, leading to the popular saying that one could travel across northern and eastern India without passing through a Congress-ruled state. This raised questions about whether the era of Congress dominance was over.
Information about C. Natarajan Annadurai:
C. Natarajan Annadurai (1909-1969) was a journalist, writer, and orator, and the founder of the DMK party. He became the Chief Minister of Madras (Tamil Nadu) in 1967 after the DMK's victory. A proponent of Dravidian culture, he led anti-Hindi agitations and supported greater autonomy for states.
Coalitions
The 1967 elections introduced the phenomenon of **coalition governments** in many states. Since no single party secured a majority, various non-Congress parties formed alliances, often termed Joint Legislative Parties (Samyukt Vidhayak Dal - SVD), to form governments. These SVD governments were often characterized by the presence of ideologically diverse partners, from socialists and communists to right-wing parties like the Jana Sangh. Examples include the SVD government in Bihar and the 'Popular United Front' in Punjab, comprising rival factions and parties across the ideological spectrum.
This Kutty cartoon from 1974 shows Charan Singh attempting to unify non-communist parties into a 'United Front', reflecting the ongoing efforts in post-1967 Indian politics to consolidate opposition forces against the dominant Congress, often involving diverse parties.
Defection
Another significant feature of politics after the 1967 elections was the frequent occurrence of **defections**, where elected representatives switched parties after being elected on a particular party's ticket. This practice played a major role in the formation and collapse of governments in the states. Breakaway Congress legislators were particularly instrumental in installing non-Congress governments in states like Haryana, MP, and UP. The constant shifting of political loyalties led to the popular expression **'Aya Ram, Gaya Ram'**, symbolizing legislators frequently changing parties.
Information about the story of 'Aya Ram, Gaya Ram':
The phrase 'Aya Ram, Gaya Ram' originated from an incident in Haryana in 1967 where MLA Gaya Lal changed his party affiliations three times within a fortnight. A Congress leader famously announced "Gaya Ram was now Aya Ram" when he briefly returned to Congress. This incident became a widely cited example of political defection and led to amendments in the Constitution later to curb this practice, although it remains a feature of Indian politics to some extent.
Split In The Congress
Although the Congress retained power at the Center after the 1967 elections, its reduced majority and losses in numerous states proved that it was no longer invincible. However, with non-Congress coalition governments in states often proving unstable, no clear alternative to the Congress had yet emerged at the national level.
Indira Vs. The ‘Syndicate’
The most significant challenge to Indira Gandhi's leadership came from within the Congress party itself, specifically from a group of powerful senior leaders known as the **'Syndicate'**. The Syndicate had influenced Indira Gandhi's rise to Prime Minister, expecting her to rely on their guidance. However, Indira Gandhi gradually sought to assert her independence and build her own base of support, often relying on trusted advisors from outside the traditional party hierarchy. She strategically sidelined the Syndicate leaders.
Information about The Congress 'Syndicate':
The Syndicate was an informal but influential group of senior leaders who controlled the Congress party's organization in the 1960s. Led by K. Kamraj, former Tamil Nadu CM and then Congress President, it included prominent state leaders like S. K. Patil, S. Nijalingappa, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, and Atulya Ghosh. Both Shastri and Indira Gandhi owed their initial rise to the Syndicate's support. The Syndicate played a significant role in government and policy formulation. Following the Congress split, Syndicate leaders remained with the Congress (O) and lost political power and prestige after Indira Gandhi's Congress (R) proved more popular in the 1971 elections.
Indira Gandhi faced a dual challenge: establishing her independence from the Syndicate and revitalizing the Congress after its 1967 setbacks. She skillfully transformed the internal power struggle into an **ideological conflict**, launching initiatives with a distinct **Left orientation** to appeal to the masses. The Ten Point Programme (May 1967) included measures like bank nationalization, general insurance nationalization, urban property/income ceilings, and land reforms. While the Syndicate formally approved, they had reservations, setting the stage for confrontation.
Information about Karpoori Thakur:
Karpoori Thakur (1924-1988) was a socialist leader and freedom fighter who served as Chief Minister of Bihar multiple times. A follower of Lohia, he was active in labor and peasant movements and participated in the JP movement. He is known for introducing reservations for backward classes in Bihar and opposing the use of English.
Information about S. Nijalingappa:
S. Nijalingappa (1902-2000) was a senior Congress leader, member of the Constituent Assembly, and former Chief Minister of Mysore (Karnataka). He served as Congress President from 1968 to 1971 and was a prominent figure in the Syndicate. He is regarded as a key figure in the making of modern Karnataka.
Presidential Election, 1969
The rivalry between Indira Gandhi and the Syndicate culminated in the **Presidential election of 1969**. Following President Zakir Hussain's death, the Syndicate nominated N. Sanjeeva Reddy (then Lok Sabha Speaker and a long-time opponent of Mrs. Gandhi) as the official Congress candidate, despite Indira Gandhi's reservations. Indira Gandhi retaliated by supporting the Vice-President, **V.V. Giri**, who filed his nomination as an independent candidate.
Simultaneously, Indira Gandhi took bold, popular policy decisions: nationalizing fourteen major private banks and abolishing the 'privy purse' of former princes. These moves deepened differences with figures like Deputy Prime Minister Morarji Desai, leading to his departure from the government.
This R. K. Laxman cartoon, titled "The Left Hook," represents the 1969 Presidential election as a boxing match where independent candidate V.V. Giri (supported by Indira Gandhi) knocks out the Syndicate's official candidate N. Sanjeeva Reddy (represented by Syndicate leader Nijalingappa), illustrating Indira Gandhi's strategic move and its success in challenging the Syndicate's authority within the Congress.
Information about V.V. Giri:
V.V. Giri (1894-1980) was a veteran Congress worker, labor leader, and served as Governor in various states and Vice-President. Following President Zakir Hussain's death, he became acting President. He contested the 1969 Presidential election as an independent candidate with covert and then overt support from Indira Gandhi, winning the election and becoming President of India (1969-1974), which formalized the split in the Congress party.
The internal struggle came to a head. The Congress President, S. Nijalingappa, issued a whip for Congress MPs/MLAs to vote for Sanjeeva Reddy. Indira Gandhi's faction (known as 'requisitionists') sought a special AICC meeting, which was denied. Indira Gandhi then openly called for a 'conscience vote,' urging MPs/MLAs to vote according to their conscience rather than the party whip. The election result saw V.V. Giri win and Sanjeeva Reddy defeated, formalizing the **split in the Congress party**. The Congress President expelled Indira Gandhi, while her group claimed to be the real Congress.
By November 1969, the Syndicate-led group became the **Congress (Organisation) or Congress (O)**, and Indira Gandhi's group became the **Congress (Requisitionists) or Congress (R)**, also known as Old Congress and New Congress respectively. Indira Gandhi framed this split as an ideological one between progressive socialists and conservative elements.
Abolition Of Privy Purse
The integration of Princely States after independence involved granting hereditary privileges and government allowances ('privy purse') to former rulers' families. While initially accepted for smooth integration, these privileges were seen as incompatible with the constitutional principles of equality and socio-economic justice. Nehru had expressed dissatisfaction with this. Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported abolishing privy purses, facing opposition from figures like Morarji Desai, who viewed it as a 'breach of faith'.
The government attempted a constitutional amendment in 1970, which failed in the Rajya Sabha. An ordinance was issued but struck down by the Supreme Court. Indira Gandhi made the abolition of privy purse a major election issue in 1971, gaining public support. After her massive victory, the Constitution was amended to remove legal obstacles and abolish the privy purse, ending these special privileges.
This Vijayan cartoon from 1969 visually represents the intense leadership rivalry within the Congress party between Indira Gandhi and the Syndicate leaders, depicting them pulling against each other, illustrating the factional struggle that ultimately led to the party's split.
The 1971 Election And Restoration Of Congress
The split reduced Indira Gandhi's government to a minority in the Lok Sabha, relying on support from other parties like the CPI and DMK. To regain a strong parliamentary majority and secure a popular mandate for her policies, her government recommended the dissolution of the Lok Sabha in December 1970, a bold and surprising move. The fifth general election was called for February 1971.
The Contest
The electoral battle seemed unfavorable for Indira Gandhi's Congress (R). It was seen as a mere faction of a weakened party, with the Congress (O) believed to possess the real organizational strength due to its senior leaders. To further challenge her, major non-communist, non-Congress opposition parties formed a broad electoral alliance called the **Grand Alliance**, including the SSP, PSP, Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Swatantra Party, and Bharatiya Kranti Dal. The ruling Congress (R) formed an alliance with the CPI.
The Outcome And After
Despite the challenges, Indira Gandhi's Congress (R) had key advantages. It had a clear agenda and a powerful, positive slogan: **'Garibi Hatao' (Remove Poverty)**. The Grand Alliance, in contrast, lacked a coherent program, focusing primarily on 'Indira Hatao' (Remove Indira). Indira Gandhi framed the election as a choice between her pro-poor agenda (focusing on public sector growth, land/property ceilings, reducing inequality, abolishing princely privileges) and the opposition's negative campaign. 'Garibi Hatao' was a political strategy to build support among disadvantaged groups, including landless laborers, Dalits, Adivasis, minorities, women, and unemployed youth.
This R. K. Laxman cartoon, titled "The Grand Finish," interprets the outcome of the 1971 elections, showing prominent opposition leaders defeated and exhausted, symbolizing the crushing defeat of the Grand Alliance and the overwhelming victory of Indira Gandhi's Congress, which effectively ended the challenge to Congress dominance for a period.
The results of the 1971 Lok Sabha elections were indeed dramatic. The Congress (R)-CPI alliance won a landslide victory, securing 375 seats and 48.4% of the vote. Indira Gandhi's Congress (R) alone won 352 seats with 44% of votes, firmly establishing itself as the 'real' Congress and restoring the party's dominant position. The Grand Alliance failed spectacularly, winning less than 40 seats combined.
Following the 1971 Lok Sabha victory, a major political and military crisis unfolded in East Pakistan, leading to the Indo-Pak war and the creation of Bangladesh (discussed in Chapter Four). These events significantly increased Indira Gandhi's popularity, earning her admiration even from opposition leaders as a strong nationalist leader. Her party swept the State Assembly elections in 1972, further consolidating its power. The Congress was now in power in almost all states and enjoyed broad social support.
This Kutty cartoon likely comments on Indira Gandhi's centralized approach to leadership after consolidating power, particularly her influence over the selection of Chief Ministers in states, symbolizing a shift in power dynamics where state leaders were less independent compared to the earlier Congress system.
Restoration?
While Indira Gandhi led the Congress to victory and restored its dominance after the challenges of the late 1960s, what she achieved was not simply a revival of the old Congress system. She had, in many ways, **re-invented the party**. The 'new' Congress, while enjoying similar levels of popularity as the old, was different in nature:
- It relied heavily on the popularity of the **supreme leader** (Indira Gandhi).
- It had a weaker organizational structure compared to the earlier Congress.
- It was less accommodative of different opinions and interests, with fewer internal factions.
- Its electoral success depended more on specific social groups like the poor, women, Dalits, Adivasis, and minorities.
Thus, Indira Gandhi restored the Congress system by fundamentally changing its character, making it more centralized and personality-driven.
This R. K. Laxman cartoon uses the analogy of a table to comment on whether the 'new' Congress under Indira Gandhi was a true restoration of the 'old' Congress system. Changing the 'top' (leadership) and 'legs' (social base/organization) implies that while the name and dominant position remained, the fundamental structure and character of the party had changed significantly.
The new Congress, despite its popularity, lacked the old system's capacity to absorb and manage internal tensions and conflicts. While the party consolidated its position and Indira Gandhi attained significant political authority, the space for democratic expression of public aspirations seemed to shrink. Popular discontent related to development and economic issues continued to grow, eventually leading to a major political crisis that would challenge the constitutional democracy itself (discussed in the next chapter).
Information about the film Zanjeer:
The 1973 film "Zanjeer," featuring the 'angry young man' protagonist Vijay, reflects the growing public frustration and disillusionment with the existing system in the 1970s, coinciding with the period after Indira Gandhi's consolidation of power but amidst ongoing socio-economic problems. The film's theme of an individual fighting systemic corruption and injustice captures the public mood of the time, where a sense of helplessness combined with a desire for change contributed to political tensions and popular unrest.