Chapter 9 Recent Developments In Indian Politics

This final chapter provides an overview of significant political developments in India during the last two decades, starting from the late 1980s. This period is characterized by complex and often unpredictable changes resulting from the interplay of various factors.

Context Of The 1990s

The decade of the 1980s concluded with five major developments that profoundly impacted Indian politics in the subsequent years:

1. The **defeat of the Congress party in the 1989 elections**. Having secured a massive majority with 415 seats in 1984, Congress was reduced to 197 seats. Although Congress returned to power after the mid-term elections in 1991 and remained a significant force, the 1989 election marked the end of the era of the 'Congress system', where the party held unparalleled centrality in the party system.
2. The rise of the **'Mandal issue'** in national politics. In 1990, the new National Front government decided to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission, which proposed reserving jobs in the central government for Other Backward Classes (OBCs). This decision sparked widespread and often violent 'anti-Mandal' protests across the country, shaping political discourse and alignments significantly since 1989.
3. A radical shift in economic policy with the initiation of the **new economic reforms** (also known as the structural adjustment program). These changes, which became prominently visible in 1991 (initiated under Rajiv Gandhi), marked a departure from the direction India's economy had followed since independence, emphasizing liberalization, privatization, and globalization. Despite criticism from various groups, successive governments continued these policies.
4. A series of events culminating in the **demolition of the disputed structure at Ayodhya (Babri Masjid)** in December 1992. This event became a symbol of and a catalyst for significant changes in the country's politics, intensifying debates about Indian nationalism and secularism and contributing to the rise of the BJP and 'Hindutva' politics.
5. The **assassination of Rajiv Gandhi** in May 1991 during an election campaign in Tamil Nadu. Linked to the Sri Lankan Tamil organization LTTE, his death led to a change in the leadership of the Congress party, with P.V. Narasimha Rao becoming Prime Minister after Congress emerged as the single largest party in the 1991 elections.

This image depicts Congress leader Sitaram Kesri's action of withdrawing support from the United Front government led by Deve Gowda in 1997, illustrating the unstable nature of coalition politics and the crucial role of supporting parties in this era.

This photograph shows Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, the key figures who spearheaded the implementation of India's new economic policies in 1991, marking a significant shift in the country's development trajectory.

This R. K. Laxman cartoon likely captures the intense reaction and widespread protests ('anti-Mandal' stir) that erupted following the implementation of the Mandal Commission's recommendations for OBC reservations, highlighting the social and political upheaval caused by the decision.

This cartoon likely comments on the rise of communal tensions and politics, possibly in the context of the Ayodhya dispute and the demolition of the Babri Masjid, suggesting that religious divisions were increasingly impacting the political landscape.

This collage of newspaper headlines reflects the significant leadership changes and internal political dynamics within the Congress party during the 1990s and early 2000s, highlighting the challenges it faced after the end of its dominance.

Era Of Coalitions

The 1989 elections, while defeating the Congress, did not result in a clear majority for any other party. Although Congress was the single largest party, it chose to sit in opposition. A new alliance, the **National Front** (comprising Janata Dal and regional parties), formed the government with external support from two ideologically opposite poles: the BJP and the Left Front.

Decline Of Congress

The defeat of the Congress in 1989 marked the effective **end of the 'Congress system'** dominance over the Indian party system. While Congress remained a major party, it lost the centrality it had held since independence. Unlike the challenges it faced in the late 1960s (discussed in Chapter Five), which Indira Gandhi managed to overcome to re-establish Congress dominance, the challenge in the 1990s led not to the rise of another single dominant party but to the emergence of a **multi-party system**.

This Sudhir Tailang cartoon from 1989 depicts V.P. Singh leading the National Front government, being supported by the ideologically disparate Left (Jyoti Basu) and BJP (L.K. Advani), illustrating the complex coalition arrangement that marked the beginning of the coalition era.

This Ajit Ninan cartoon illustrates the transition from the era of single-party dominance (represented by a large, perhaps singular, entity) to a multi-party system, showing the fragmentation and emergence of numerous smaller parties and alliances that characterized Indian politics after 1989.

Alliance Politics

Since 1989, no single party has secured a clear majority in Lok Sabha elections until 2014. This initiated an era of **coalition governments** at the Centre. In this phase, regional parties gained crucial importance, playing a central role in forming ruling alliances. Governments were formed only with the participation or support of multiple regional parties, as seen with the National Front (1989), United Front (1996, 1997), BJP-led coalitions (1998, 1999 - NDA), and Congress-led coalitions (2004, 2009 - UPA). This trend reflects gradual changes over decades, where various social sections and groups left the traditional Congress fold to form their own parties, leading to the weakening of Congress without any single party being able to replace it.

The era of coalition governments reflects a long-term trend towards a more fragmented party system. This period saw frequent changes in government and political instability at the Centre, particularly in the 1990s.

The table below illustrates the outcomes of Lok Sabha elections since 1989, showcasing the shift towards coalition politics with no single party consistently achieving a majority:

This table demonstrates that until 2014, governments were typically formed by coalitions, highlighting the fragmentation of the party system. While the BJP achieved a majority on its own in 2014 and 2019, the preceding period firmly established coalition politics as the norm.

Politics Of Backward Classes

A significant long-term development since the 1980s is the rise of the **Other Backward Classes (OBCs)** as a major political force. 'OBC' is an administrative category for communities, other than Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), facing educational and social backwardness (often referred to as 'backward castes'). As discussed in Chapter Six, support for Congress among backward castes had declined, creating space for non-Congress parties drawing support from these communities (e.g., Janata Party in 1977).

‘Mandal’ Implemented

In the 1980s, the **Janata Dal** brought together groups with strong OBC support. A pivotal moment was the National Front government's decision in August 1990 to implement a key recommendation of the **Mandal Commission** – reserving 27% of jobs in the central government and its undertakings for OBCs. This decision, known as the 'Mandal issue', sparked intense national debate and often violent protests (anti-Mandal agitation). It also significantly raised awareness of OBC identity and facilitated their political mobilization. Many new parties emerged focusing on OBC empowerment, demanding better opportunities in education and employment, and claiming a rightful share of political power proportionate to their large population segment.

This image visually represents the social and political upheaval caused by the implementation of the Mandal Commission's recommendations for OBC reservations, illustrating the scale of the resulting agitations and protests across the country.

Information about The Mandal Commission:

Reservations for OBCs existed in southern states before the national policy. In 1978, the Janata Party government appointed the Second Backward Classes Commission, popularly known as the **Mandal Commission** (chaired by B.P. Mandal), to investigate the social and educational backwardness of various sections and recommend measures. The Commission, in its 1980 report (submitted after the Janata government fell), defined 'backward classes' based on 'backward castes' and recommended reserving 27% of seats in educational institutions and government jobs for these groups. It also suggested other measures like land reform for OBCs. The National Front government's decision to implement the job reservation recommendation in 1990 triggered the nationwide debate and protests. The Supreme Court, in the **'Indira Sawhney case' (1992)**, upheld the reservation decision but laid down certain conditions (e.g., excluding the 'creamy layer'). Despite initial controversy, OBC reservations gained support from major political parties.

Information about B.P. Mandal:

Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal (1918-1982) was an MP from Bihar and a socialist leader who chaired the Second Backward Classes Commission (Mandal Commission). He served briefly as Chief Minister of Bihar and was a founder of the Janata Party.

Political Fallouts

The 1980s also saw the political rise of Dalits as a distinct force. The **Backward and Minority Communities Employees Federation (BAMCEF)** was formed in 1978, advocating political power for the 'bahujan' (SC, ST, OBC, minorities). Out of this emerged the **Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti (DS-4)** and later the **Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)** under the leadership of **Kanshi Ram**.

The BSP, initially a small party focused on Dalit voters in North Indian states, achieved a significant breakthrough in Uttar Pradesh in the 1989 and 1991 elections, marking the first time a Dalit-supported party achieved such success in independent India. Kanshi Ram envisioned BSP as a pragmatic force for achieving social equality through political power, leveraging the numbers of the Bahujan population. The BSP has since become a major political player in UP, participating in governments, expanding its base beyond Dalits, although Dalit and OBC politics often remain distinct and sometimes competitive in other parts of India.

Information about Kanshi Ram:

Kanshi Ram (1934-2006) was a key figure in the empowerment of Dalits and the founder of the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). He left government service for social and political activism, founding BAMCEF, DS-4, and finally the BSP in 1984. He was known as a shrewd political strategist who believed political power was essential for social equality and is credited with the resurgence of Dalit politics in North India.

Communalism, Secularism, Democracy

Another major development in this period was the rise of politics based on religious identity, intensifying debates about secularism and democracy. Following the Emergency, the Bharatiya Jana Sangh eventually formed the **Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)** in 1980. Initially, the BJP adopted a broader platform, even embracing 'Gandhian Socialism', but achieved little electoral success in 1980 and 1984. After 1986, the party shifted its focus to **Hindu nationalism** and the politics of **'Hindutva'**.

Hindutva

'Hindutva', a concept articulated by V. D. Savarkar, means 'Hinduness' and is seen as the basis of Indian (or Hindu) nationhood. Proponents believe that belonging to the Indian nation requires accepting India as both 'fatherland' and 'holy land'. They argue that a strong nation needs a strong, united national culture, which in India can only be provided by Hindu culture. This ideology became central to the BJP's politics from 1986 onwards.

Two events around 1986 became significant for the BJP's Hindutva politics:

1. The **Shah Bano case (1985)**: The Supreme Court granted maintenance to a divorced Muslim woman. Orthodox Muslims protested this as interference in Muslim Personal Law, leading the government to pass a law nullifying the Court's judgment. This move was controversial and criticized by many groups. The BJP criticized the Congress government's action as 'appeasement' of minorities.
2. The **Faizabad district court order (February 1986)**: The court ordered the unlocking of the Babri Masjid premises, allowing Hindus to pray at the site believed to be Lord Rama's birthplace.

Ayodhya Dispute

The unlocking of the **Babri Masjid** premises in Ayodhya escalated a long-standing local dispute into a major national issue. The Babri Masjid, a 16th-century mosque built by a Mughal general, was claimed by some Hindus as the site of a Lord Rama temple that was allegedly demolished. The dispute had been a court case for decades, with the mosque locked up since the late 1940s.

The court order triggered mobilization by Hindu and Muslim organizations, leading to communal tensions. The BJP adopted the Ayodhya dispute as a central political plank, organizing campaigns like the **Rathyatra** (a large march from Somnath to Ayodhya) with allied organizations (RSS, VHP) to mobilize Hindus. This large-scale mobilization created a surcharged atmosphere and instances of communal violence.

These images are related to the contentious Ayodhya dispute, showing the Babri Masjid structure before demolition and events surrounding the movement for a Ram temple at the site, which became a focal point of communal politics and national debate.

Demolition And After

In December 1992, organizations supporting the temple construction organized a 'Karseva' (voluntary service) to build the Ram temple at the disputed site in Ayodhya. Despite a Supreme Court order to the State government to protect the structure, thousands gathered on 6 December 1992 and **demolished the mosque**. This act sparked widespread communal violence across India, particularly in Mumbai in January 1993.

The demolition had several consequences: The BJP-led state government in Uttar Pradesh was dismissed, and President's rule was imposed in other BJP-ruled states. A case was filed against the UP Chief Minister for contempt of court. While the BJP expressed regret, most political parties condemned the demolition as anti-secular. This event intensified the debate on secularism and raised fundamental questions about India's identity: whether it would become a nation dominated by the majority religion or continue to guarantee equal rights to all citizens regardless of faith, revisiting questions faced after Partition.

Information about Supreme Court judgement quote (Mohd. Aslam v. Union of India, 1994):

This quote from a Supreme Court judgment regarding the failure to protect the Babri Masjid structure criticizes the breach of promise by the state government (led by the CM) that the structure would be protected. It views the demolition as a betrayal of trust and a setback to national unity, highlighting the devastating impact of the event on communal harmony and the image of India's tolerance, which resonated globally.

Gujarat Riots

Communal violence resurfaced in February-March 2002 in Gujarat. The immediate cause was the setting on fire of a train bogey in Godhra carrying Karsevaks returning from Ayodhya, resulting in 57 deaths. Suspecting Muslim involvement, large-scale anti-Muslim violence erupted across Gujarat, continuing for about a month and claiming nearly 1100 lives, mostly Muslims. The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) criticized the Gujarat government for failing to control the violence, provide relief, and prosecute perpetrators. The Election Commission postponed state assembly elections. Like the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, the Gujarat violence highlighted how state machinery can be affected by sectarian passions and posed a threat to democratic politics by using religious sentiments for political gain.

Information about Sardar Patel's quote on minority rights (1947):

In this quote from 1947, Sardar Patel addresses the Advisory Committee on Minorities, reassuring them that India's strength lies in satisfying everyone's needs and protecting minorities. He asserts that India is committed to safeguarding minority rights and not being swayed by communal elements, emphasizing inclusivity and the commitment to build a nation where all feel secure.

Information about National Human Rights Commission quote (2001-2002 Report):

The NHRC quote expresses sadness over the Gujarat events (starting with Godhra and subsequent violence) and underscores the government's comprehensive failure to control violence, protect citizens' rights to life, liberty, equality, and dignity. It stresses the need to heal wounds, rebuild peace, and ensure justice by holding perpetrators accountable and upholding constitutional and legal values.

Information about Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee's quote (2002):

In this statement during the Gujarat riots, Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee reminds the Gujarat Chief Minister of the duty of 'raj dharma' (the duty of a ruler), which requires treating all subjects without discrimination based on caste, creed, or religion. This was a veiled criticism of the state government's handling of the communal violence, emphasizing the secular duty of the state.

Emergence Of A New Consensus

The period after 1989 is characterized by the decline of Congress dominance and the rise of the BJP, along with numerous regional parties. Electoral data shows a competitive landscape where Congress and BJP votes combined often fall short of a majority, with a significant portion going to other parties (including those in the 'Janata family' or independent). Political competition increasingly occurred between coalitions led by BJP and Congress, and other parties outside these alliances.

These charts illustrate the electoral performance of the Congress and BJP in Lok Sabha elections from 1989 to 2004, showing their vote share and the number of seats won. They demonstrate the fragmentation of the party system, where neither party consistently achieved a majority on its own, leading to the era of coalition governments, and highlighting the increasing share of votes and seats going to other parties.

In the 2004 elections, Congress also formed extensive coalitions. The BJP-led NDA was defeated, and a new coalition, the **United Progressive Alliance (UPA)** led by Congress, came to power with support from the Left Front. The 2004 election also marked a partial revival for Congress, increasing its seats for the first time since 1991, although its and BJP's combined vote shares were close. This confirms the transformation of the party system into a multi-cornered competition.

Growing Consensus

Despite intense competition and conflicts, a broad consensus has emerged among most political parties on several crucial issues since the 1990s. This consensus has four main elements:

1. **Agreement on new economic policies:** Most parties support the economic liberalization policies initiated in 1991, believing they are necessary for the country's prosperity and global economic standing, despite opposition from some groups.
2. **Acceptance of the political and social claims of backward castes:** Political parties now recognize the need to accept the demands of backward castes for adequate representation. This includes supporting reservation of seats in education and employment and ensuring their share of political power.
3. **Acceptance of the role of State level parties:** State-level parties are increasingly important in national governance, participating in power-sharing arrangements and playing a central role in coalition politics, blurring the distinction between state and national politics.
4. **Emphasis on pragmatic considerations over ideology:** Coalition politics has shifted the focus from ideological differences to practical power-sharing arrangements. Parties form alliances based on electoral necessity rather than strict ideological agreement (e.g., NDA parties allied with BJP despite not subscribing to its Hindutva ideology).

These significant changes have shaped the political landscape. From the dominant position of the Congress initially, Indian politics has evolved into a more competitive, multi-party system, but one now characterized by an implicit agreement on certain core policies among major actors. While parties operate within this consensus, popular movements continue to raise issues of poverty, displacement, social justice, and development, reminding the state of its responsibilities. The future of India's democratic politics will unfold through the ongoing interaction of these factors.

This series of cartoons satirizes the political instability of the 1990s, highlighting the frequent changes in government and the precarious position of Prime Ministers leading coalition governments, often facing questions about how long their government would last, reflecting the nature of politics in that era.