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| Latest Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Class 12th) | ||||||||||||||
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Latest Class 12th Chemistry NCERT Concepts & Solutions
1. Solutions
This chapter explores solutions, homogeneous mixtures of two or more components. It covers various ways to express solution concentration, such as molarity ($\textsf{M}$), molality ($\textsf{m}$), mole fraction ($\chi$), and mass percentage. **Raoult's Law**, describing the vapour pressure of solutions, is discussed, along with ideal and non-ideal solutions. The chapter details colligative properties – properties dependent on the number of solute particles, not their identity – including relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point ($\Delta \textsf{T}_\textsf{b}$), depression of freezing point ($\Delta \textsf{T}_\textsf{f}$), and osmotic pressure ($\pi = \textsf{CRT}$). Abnormal molar masses and the Van't Hoff factor are also covered.
2. Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry studies the relationship between chemical energy and electrical energy. This chapter introduces electrochemical cells, where chemical reactions produce electricity (Galvanic cells) or electricity drives chemical reactions (Electrolytic cells). Concepts like electrode potential, standard electrode potential ($E^\circ$), and the **Nernst equation** are explained to calculate cell potential. Electrolytic conductivity ($\kappa$), molar conductivity ($\Lambda_\text{m}$), and their variation with concentration are discussed, along with **Kohlrausch's Law**. Electrolysis, Faraday's laws, different types of batteries, and the phenomenon of corrosion are also covered.
3. Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics deals with the rates of chemical reactions and the factors influencing them. This chapter defines reaction rate and discusses how it is affected by concentration, temperature, catalyst, and surface area. The **rate law**, rate constant, order of reaction, and molecularity are introduced. Integrated rate equations for zero and first-order reactions are derived, along with the concept of half-life ($t_{1/2}$). Collision theory and the concept of activation energy ($E_\text{a}$) are explained to understand reaction mechanisms, culminating in the **Arrhenius equation** ($\textsf{k} = \textsf{A}e^{-\textsf{E}_\text{a}/\textsf{RT}}$).
4. The D-And F-Block Elements
This chapter focuses on the properties and chemistry of transition elements (d-block) and inner transition elements (f-block - Lanthanoids and Actinoids). It discusses their electronic configurations, general characteristics like metallic nature, variable oxidation states, formation of coloured ions, catalytic properties, and magnetic properties. Preparation and properties of important compounds like $\textsf{K}_2\textsf{Cr}_2\textsf{O}_7$ and $\textsf{KMnO}_4$ are studied. The **Lanthanoid contraction** and its consequences are explained, highlighting the unique chemistry of these groups.
5. Coordination Compounds
Coordination compounds are complex substances containing a central metal atom or ion coordinated to a set of surrounding molecules or ions called ligands. This chapter introduces **Werner's theory**, defines key terms like coordination number and oxidation state, and covers the **IUPAC nomenclature** of coordination compounds. Different types of isomerism (structural and stereoisomerism) are discussed. Bonding theories, including Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and Crystal Field Theory (CFT), are used to explain their structure, bonding, magnetic properties, and colour. The chapter also highlights their significance in biology and industry.
6. Haloalkanes And Haloarenes
This chapter deals with halogen-containing organic compounds, where one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane or arene are replaced by halogen atoms. It covers their nomenclature, methods of preparation (e.g., from alcohols, hydrocarbons), physical properties, and important chemical reactions. **Nucleophilic substitution reactions** (SN1 and SN2 mechanisms) in haloalkanes and **elimination reactions** are discussed. Preparation and electrophilic substitution reactions of haloarenes are also explored, highlighting the difference in reactivity compared to haloalkanes due to resonance effects.
7. Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers
This chapter explores the chemistry of organic compounds containing hydroxyl (-OH) functional group (alcohols and phenols) and ether linkage (-O-). It covers their nomenclature, methods of preparation (e.g., from alkenes, carbonyl compounds), physical properties (e.g., boiling points due to hydrogen bonding), and characteristic chemical reactions. The **acidic nature of alcohols and phenols** is discussed, along with reactions like esterification, oxidation, and dehydration. Preparation and reactions of ethers, such as cleavage reactions, are also studied.
8. Aldehydes, Ketones And Carboxylic Acids
This chapter focuses on organic compounds containing the carbonyl group ($\textsf{C=O}$) - aldehydes and ketones - and the carboxyl group ($\textsf{-COOH}$) - carboxylic acids. It covers their nomenclature, methods of preparation (e.g., oxidation of alcohols), physical properties, and distinctive chemical reactions. Reactions like nucleophilic addition (characteristic of aldehydes and ketones), oxidation, reduction, **Aldol condensation**, and **Cannizzaro reaction** are detailed. The acidic nature and reactions of carboxylic acids, including esterification and reactions with metals, are also discussed.
9. Amines
Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia ($\textsf{NH}_3$) by replacing hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. This chapter covers their nomenclature, classification (primary, secondary, tertiary), and methods of preparation (e.g., reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides). Their physical properties and significant chemical reactions are discussed. A key aspect is their **basic nature** ($\textsf{K}_\textsf{b}$ values), and reactions like alkylation, acylation, carbylamine test, and reactions with nitrous acid are explored. Reactions involving diazonium salts are also introduced.
10. Biomolecules
This chapter focuses on the essential organic molecules found in living organisms. It covers the structure and function of **Carbohydrates** (like glucose, fructose, starch, cellulose), **Proteins** (composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, with different structural levels), **Nucleic Acids** (DNA and RNA, carrying genetic information), **Vitamins** (essential organic nutrients), and **Hormones** (chemical messengers). Understanding these biomolecules is fundamental to understanding the chemistry of life processes and metabolism.