16.2 Forests And Wildlife

Forests are important natural resources, serving as 'biodiversity hotspots' – areas with a high variety of different life forms. Conserving biodiversity is a major goal of environmental efforts, as the loss of diversity can lead to ecological instability.

16.2.1 Stakeholders

Managing forests requires considering the interests of various groups or individuals who have a 'stake' in the forest resources. These stakeholders are:

1. Local people: Those who live in or around forests and depend on forest produce (firewood, timber, thatch, bamboo, fruits, nuts, medicines, fodder for cattle) for various aspects of their daily lives and livelihood. Historically, they used resources sustainably, but changed access and management practices sometimes led to over-exploitation.
2. Forest Department of the Government: The government agency that owns the forest land and controls its resources. Their management often involves converting natural forests into monocultures for specific industrial needs or revenue generation, sometimes neglecting local needs and biodiversity.
3. Industrialists: Companies that use forest produce as raw materials for industries (e.g., timber for furniture/construction, wood pulp for paper, tendu leaves for bidis, lac). They often seek cheap raw materials and may not be concerned with the sustainability of a specific forest area, moving to new areas once resources are depleted.
4. Wildlife and nature enthusiasts (Conservationists): Individuals and organisations interested in preserving nature in its original, pristine state, often focusing initially on large animals but now recognising the importance of conserving overall biodiversity. They advocate for protection and may influence management decisions.

Ideally, forest management should involve balancing the needs and interests of these diverse stakeholders, ensuring both environmental preservation and sustainable development that benefits local communities.

The Bishnoi community in Rajasthan serves as an example of a group with strong religious tenets for conserving forests and wildlife, even sacrificing lives to protect trees.

16.2.2 Management Of Forest

Historically, the goals of forest management by external authorities (like the British colonial government and later the Forest Department) often clashed with the traditional sustainable practices of local communities. Conversion of diverse natural forests into monocultures (e.g., pine, teak) destroyed biodiversity and failed to meet the varied needs of local people, leading to conflict.

Experience has shown that excluding local people or using force is not successful in the long run for forest management. The Chipko Andolan ('Hug the Trees Movement') is a notable example of a grassroots effort where local women prevented logging contractors from felling trees by physically embracing them, demonstrating the importance of local participation in conservation and the understanding that forest destruction impacts not just products but also soil and water resources.

Successful examples of collaborative forest management exist where local communities are involved in protection and are given a share of the benefits (e.g., Arabari forest range in West Bengal). This shows that involving local people can lead to efficient management and the recovery of degraded forests.

Effective forest management requires acknowledging human intervention as part of the forest landscape and deciding on the extent of intervention needed for sustainable use. Resources should be used in an environmentally and developmentally sound manner, where controlled exploitation benefits local people, promoting decentralised economic growth and ecological conservation together.

The environment is a complex entity providing natural resources for our use. Using these resources requires caution to support economic and social growth and meet material needs sustainably, considering the interests of various stakeholders and the long-term environmental consequences.

16.3 Water For All

Water is a fundamental necessity for all terrestrial life forms. While we understand its importance and cycle, human activities impact its availability and quality in various regions.

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16.3.1 Dams

One major way humans intervene in water systems is by building dams on rivers. Dams serve multiple purposes, including storing large amounts of water for irrigation and generating hydroelectricity (as discussed in Chapter 14).

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Canal systems originating from dams can transport water over long distances, bringing irrigation to vast areas (e.g., the Indira Gandhi Canal). However, large dams are often associated with significant problems:

• Social problems: Displacement of large populations (often peasants and tribals) from their lands and homes, often without adequate compensation or rehabilitation.
• Economic problems: High construction costs, potential for mismanagement leading to inequitable distribution of water benefits (some areas close to the dam get excessive water, while those farther downstream receive little), and failure to deliver promised benefits to displaced people.
• Environmental problems: Submergence of large areas leading to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and disruption of ecosystems. Alteration of river flow patterns, affecting downstream ecosystems and water availability.

Opposition to large dams (like the Narmada Bachao Andolan) often highlights these social, economic, and environmental concerns, advocating for more equitable and less destructive water management practices.

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16.3.2 Water Harvesting

As an alternative or complement to large dams, there is growing interest in traditional and local methods of water harvesting and watershed management. These methods focus on capturing and storing rainwater locally and scientifically managing land and water resources in smaller areas (watersheds) to increase biomass production and ensure ecological balance.

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Water harvesting techniques are age-old practices in India, adapted to local conditions. They aim to capture every drop of rainwater that falls on the land to replenish groundwater levels and provide moisture for vegetation, rather than letting it flow away. Examples include Khadins, tanks, and nadis in Rajasthan, bandharas and tals in Maharashtra, ahars and pynes in Bihar, kulhs in Himachal Pradesh, ponds, and various structures to recharge wells.

These techniques are often locale-specific, and their benefits are primarily localised. Advantages of water stored underground through harvesting include:

• Reduced evaporation compared to surface storage.
• Protection from contamination by human and animal waste.
• Recharge of groundwater, sustaining wells and springs.
• Providing moisture for vegetation over a wide area.
• Not creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes like stagnant surface water.

Water harvesting empowers local people by giving them control over their local water resources, encouraging responsible management and reducing over-exploitation. Successful water harvesting efforts have even helped rejuvenate dried-up rivers in some areas.

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16.4 Coal And Petroleum

Coal and petroleum are crucial fossil fuels, serving as primary sources of energy for modern society. Their management involves distinct considerations compared to renewable resources like forests or water, mainly due to their finite nature and environmental impact.

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Coal and petroleum were formed from ancient biomass over millions of years, making them exhaustible or non-renewable resources. Estimates suggest our known reserves will last for only a limited time (e.g., petroleum for about 40 years, coal for about 200 years at current consumption rates). Once depleted, they cannot be replenished within a human timescale, necessitating the search for alternative energy sources.

Besides depletion, the combustion of coal and petroleum causes significant environmental problems. Since they contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur, burning them releases:

• Carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), a major greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.
• Carbon monoxide (CO), a poisonous gas formed during incomplete combustion.
• Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which are acidic and contribute to acid rain.

Utilising these resources judiciously is crucial. Ways to reduce consumption include improving the efficiency of engines (leading to more complete combustion and less pollution, reflected in emission norms like Euro standards for vehicles), promoting energy-efficient appliances (e.g., using LED bulbs), and making conscious choices about transport (e.g., using public transport, cycling, walking).

Coal and petroleum are also vast reservoirs of carbon. Converting all this carbon into $\text{CO}_2$ would drastically increase atmospheric $\text{CO}_2$ levels, intensifying global warming. Therefore, responsible management of these resources also involves mitigating their impact on climate.

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16.5 An Overview Of Natural Resource Management

Sustainable management of natural resources is a challenging but essential task. It requires balancing the needs of current generations with the preservation of resources for future generations, considering various stakeholders' interests and environmental impacts.

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Addressing this issue involves acknowledging that individuals and groups often prioritise their self-interest. However, recognising the collective consequences of unchecked exploitation – potential misery for many and environmental destruction – is driving a slow but growing shift towards sustainable practices.

Effective management goes beyond just laws and regulations. It requires individuals and societies to adjust their demands and lifestyle choices to reduce pressure on resources. The principles of 'Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, and Recycle' offer a practical framework for more sustainable living.

Ultimately, the kind of economic and social development pursued will determine whether the environment is conserved or degraded. Sustainable development aims for a future where development benefits everyone now and for all generations to come, by managing resources responsibly and integrating environmental considerations into all aspects of life. The environment is not just a collection of plants and animals but a complex entity providing resources for our use, and using them with caution is necessary for our continued growth and well-being.